Skip to main content Accessibility help

We use cookies to distinguish you from other users and to provide you with a better experience on our websites. Close this message to accept cookies or find out how to manage your cookie settings.

Close cookie message
×
Hostname: page-component-cd9895bd7-jn8rn Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-12-25T02:12:09.587Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false

3 - In the Realm of Action

Social Exclusion as a Catalyst for Terrorism

from Part I - The Link between Exclusion and Extremism

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  16 May 2024

By
Michaela Pfundmair
Edited by
Michaela Pfundmair ,
Andrew H. Hales  and
Kipling D. Williams
Michaela Pfundmair
Affiliation:
Federal University of Administrative Sciences, Germany
Andrew H. Hales
Affiliation:
University of Mississippi
Kipling D. Williams
Affiliation:
Purdue University, Indiana
Get access

Summary

Norwegian terrorist Anders Breivik was reported to have been excluded throughout his life, much like German extremist Fabian D. In many cases of terrorism like these, social exclusion is found in the life course of terrorists. This chapter therefore explores the relationship between exclusion and terrorism in greater depth. First, central concepts are defined and explained. The chapter then focuses on theoretical and, in particular, empirical findings on the exclusion–terrorism link. According to these findings, there is a causal relationship between exclusion and a terrorist mindset. However, the link between exclusion and terrorism is probably not direct and instead works indirectly, through processes such as deprived needs and higher social susceptibility. Ultimately, exclusion is likely to act as an early cognitive opener for terrorism via its individual- and group-level consequences. A corresponding exclusion–terrorism model is postulated. The chapter concludes with directions for future research and practical implications regarding the exclusion–terrorism link.

Keywords

social exclusionostracismrejectionterrorismterrorist mindsetcognitive openingdeprived needsneed for controlsocial susceptibilitygroup processes
Type
Chapter
Information
Exclusion and Extremism
A Psychological Perspective
 , pp. 51 - 73
Publisher: Cambridge University Press
Print publication year: 2024

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

Atran, S., Sheikh, H., & Gomez, A. (2014). Devoted actors sacrifice for close comrades and sacred cause. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 111(50), 17702–17703. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1420474111CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Bäck, E. A., Bäck, H., Altermark, N., & Knapton, H. (2018). The quest for significance: Attitude adaption to a radical group following social exclusion. International Journal of Developmental Science, 12(1–2), 25–36. https://doi.org/10.3233/DEV-170230CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Backes, U., & Jesse, E. (1996). Politischer Extremismus in der Bundesrepublik Deutschland [Political extremism in the Federal Republic of Germany]. Schriftreihe Band (4. Ausg.). Bundeszentrale für politische Bildung.Google Scholar
Bahman, A. (2023). Freedom fighter or terrorist? International Law Research, 12(1), 76–86. https://doi.org/10.5539/ilr.v12n1p76Google Scholar
Barner-Barry, C. (1986). Rob: Children’s tacit use of peer ostracism to control aggressive behavior. Ethology and Sociobiology, 7(3–4), 281–293. https://doi.org/10.1016/0162-3095(86)90054-3CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bastian, B., & Haslam, N. (2010). Excluded from humanity: The dehumanizing effects of social ostracism. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 46(1), 107–113. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jesp.2009.06.022CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Baumeister, R. F., & Leary, M. R. (1995). The need to belong: Desire for interpersonal attachments as a fundamental human motivation. Psychological Bulletin, 117, 497–529. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-2909.117.3.497CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
BMI. (2019). Soziale Stadt [Social City]. Städtebauförderung. www.staedtebaufoerderung.info/DE/ProgrammeVor2020/SozialeStadt/sozialestadt_node.htmlGoogle Scholar
Borum, R. (2011). Radicalization into violent extremism I: A review of social science theories. Journal of Strategic Security, 4(4), 7–36. https://doi.org/10.5038/1944-0472.4.4.1CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bowlby, J. (1969). Attachment and loss, Volume 1: Attachment. Basic Books.Google Scholar
Carter‐Sowell, A. R., Chen, Z., & Williams, K. D. (2008). Ostracism increases social susceptibility. Social Influence, 3(3), 143–153. https://doi.org/10.1080/15534510802204868CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Chermak, S., & Gruenewald, J. A. (2015). Laying a foundation for the criminological examination of right-wing, left-wing, and Al Qaeda-inspired extremism in the United States. Terrorism and Political Violence, 27(1), 133–159. https://doi.org/10.1080/09546553.2014.975646CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Dechesne, M. (2011). Deradicalization: Not soft, but strategic. Crime, Law and Social Change, 55(4), 287–292. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10611-011-9283-8CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Della Porta, D. (1988). Recruitment processes in clandestine political organizations: Italian left-wing terrorism. International Social Movement Research, 1, 155–69.Google Scholar
DeWall, C. N., Twenge, J. M., Gitter, S. A., & Baumeister, R. F. (2009). It’s the thought that counts: The role of hostile cognition in shaping aggressive responses to social exclusion. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 96(1), 45–49. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0013196CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Dienstbühl, D. (2019). Extremismus und Radikalisierung: Kriminologisches Handbuch zur aktuellen Sicherheitslage [Extremism and radicalization: Criminological handbook on the current security situation]. Boorberg.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Doosje, B., Loseman, A., & Van Den Bos, K. (2013). Determinants of radicalization of Islamic youth in the Netherlands: Personal uncertainty, perceived injustice, and perceived group threat. Journal of Social Issues, 69(3), 586–604. https://doi.org/10.1111/josi.12030CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Doosje, B., Moghaddam, F. M., Kruglanski, A. W., et al. (2016). Terrorism, radicalization and de-radicalization. Current Opinion in Psychology, 11, 79–84. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.copsyc.2016.06.008CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Downey, G., & Feldman, S. I. (1996). Implications of rejection sensitivity for intimate relationships. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 70(6), 1327–1343. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.70.6.1327CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Fayant, M. P., Muller, D., Hartgerink, C. H. J., & Lantian, A. (2014). Is ostracism by a despised outgroup really hurtful? Social Psychology, 45(6), 489–494. https://doi.org/10.1027/1864-9335/a000209CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Gómez, Á., Bélanger, J. J., Chinchilla, J., et al. (2021). Admiration for Islamist groups encourages self-sacrifice through identity fusion. Humanities and Social Sciences Communications, 8(1), 1–12. https://doi.org/10.1057/s41599-021-00734-9CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Gómez, Á., Morales, J. F., Hart, S., Vázquez, A., & SwannJr, W. B. (2011). Rejected and excluded forevermore, but even more devoted: Irrevocable ostracism intensifies loyalty to the group among identity-fused persons. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 37(12), 1574–1586. https://doi.org/10.1177/0146167211424580CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Goodacre, R., & Zadro, L. (2010). O-Cam: A new paradigm for investigating the effects of ostracism. Behavior Research Methods, 42(3), 768–774. https://doi.org/10.3758/BRM.42.3.768CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Graf, J. (2016, July 22). “Er wurde zurückgewiesen – überall”: Wie Breivik zum Massenmörder wurde [He was rejected – everywhere”: How Breivik became a mass murderer]. n-tv. www.n-tv.de/politik/Wie-Breivik-zum-Massenmoerder-wurde-article18245816.htmlGoogle Scholar
Gruter, M., & Masters, R. D. (1986). Ostracism: A social and biological phenomenon. Ethnology and Sociobiology, 7, 149–395. https://doi.org/10.1016/0162-3095(86)90043-9CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hafez, M., & Mullins, C. (2015). The radicalization puzzle: A theoretical synthesis of empirical approaches to homegrown extremism. Studies in Conflict & Terrorism, 38(11), 958–975. https://doi.org/10.1080/1057610X.2015.1051375CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hales, A. H., Wesselmann, E. D., & Williams, K. D. (2016). Prayer, self-affirmation, and distraction improve recovery from short-term ostracism. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 64, 8–20. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jesp.2016.01.002CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hales, A. H., & Williams, K. D. (2018). Marginalized individuals and extremism: The role of ostracism in openness to extreme groups. Journal of Social Issues, 74(1), 75–92. https://doi.org/10.1111/josi.12257CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hansen, H. E., Nemeth, S. C., & Mauslein, J. A. (2020). Ethnic political exclusion and terrorism: Analyzing the local conditions for violence. Conflict Management and Peace Science, 37(3), 280–300. https://doi.org/10.1177/0738894218782160CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hart, A. (2021). Right-wing waves: Applying the four waves theory to transnational and transhistorical right-wing threat trends. Terrorism and Political Violence, 35, 1–16. https://doi.org/10.1080/09546553.2020.1856818CrossRefGoogle Scholar
HM Government (2011). PREVENT Strategy; PREVENT Programme. The Stationery Office Limited.Google Scholar
Hogg, M. A. (2014). From uncertainty to extremism: Social categorization and identity processes. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 23(5), 338–342. https://doi.org/10.1177/0963721414540168CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hogg, M. A., & Adelman, J. (2013). Uncertainty-identity theory: Extreme groups, radical behavior, and authoritarian leadership. Journal of Social Issues, 69(3), 436–454. https://doi.org/10.1111/josi.12023CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hogg, M. A., Kruglanski, A., & Bos, K. (2013). Uncertainty and the roots of extremism. Journal of Social Issues, 69(3), 407–418. https://doi.org/10.1111/josi.12021CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Horgan, J. (2008). From profiles to pathways and roots to routes: Perspectives from psychology on radicalization into terrorism. The ANNALS of the American Academy of Political and Social Science, 618(1), 80–94. https://doi.org/10.1177/0002716208317539CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Horgan, J. G. (2014). The psychology of terrorism. Routledge. https://doi.org/10.4324/9781315882246CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Jones, E. E., Carter-Sowell, A. R., Kelly, J. R., & Williams, K. D. (2009). “I’m out of the loop”: Ostracism through information exclusion. Group Processes & Intergroup Relations, 12(2), 157–174. https://doi.org/10.1177/2F1368430208101054CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Knapton, H. M., Bäck, H., & Bäck, E. A. (2015). The social activist: Conformity to the ingroup following rejection as a predictor of political participation. Social Influence, 10(2), 97–108. https://doi.org/10.1080/15534510.2014.966856CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Knowles, M. L. (2013). Belonging regulation through the use of (para)social surrogates. In DeWall, C. N. (Ed.), The Oxford handbook of social exclusion (pp. 275–285). Oxford University Press. https://doi.org/10.1093/oxfordhb/9780195398700.013.0026CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Koomen, W., & Van der Pligt, J. (2016). The psychology of radicalization and terrorism. Routledge. https://doi.org/10.4324/9781315771984Google Scholar
Kowalski, R. M., Leary, M., Hendley, T., et al. (2021). K–12, college/university, and mass shootings: Similarities and differences. The Journal of Social Psychology, 161(6), 753–778. https://doi.org/10.1080/00224545.2021.1900047CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Kruglanski, A. W., Bélanger, J. J., & Gunaratna, R. (Eds.) (2019). The three pillars of radicalization. Oxford University Press. https://doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780190851125.001.0001CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kruglanski, A. W., Gelfand, M. J., Bélanger, J. J., et al. (2014). The psychology of radicalization and deradicalization: How significance quest impacts violent extremism. Political Psychology, 35, 69–93. https://doi.org/10.1111/pops.12163CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kruglanski, A. W., & Orehek, E. (2011). The role of the quest for personal significance in motivating terrorism. In Forgas, J., Kruglanski, A. & Williams, K. (Eds.), The psychology of social conflict and aggression (pp. 153–166). Psychology Press.Google Scholar
Kruglanski, A. W., Szumowska, E., Kopetz, C. H., Vallerand, R. J., & Pierro, A. (2021). On the psychology of extremism: How motivational imbalance breeds intemperance. Psychological Review, 128(2), 264–289. https://doi.org/10.1037/rev0000260CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
LaFree, G., Jiang, B., & Porter, L. C. (2020). Prison and violent political extremism in the United States. Journal of Quantitative Criminology, 36(3), 473–498. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10940-019-09412-1CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Laqueur, W. (1987). The age of terrorism. Little, Brown and Company.Google Scholar
Leary, M. R., Kowalski, R. M., Smith, L., & Phillips, S. (2003). Teasing, rejection, and violence: Case studies of the school shootings. Aggressive Behavior, 29(3), 202–214. https://doi.org/10.1002/ab.10061CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Lieberman, M. D., & Eisenberger, N. I. (2006). A pain by any other name (rejection, exclusion, ostracism) still hurts the same: The role of dorsal anterior cingulate cortex in social and physical pain. In Cacioppo, J. T., Visser, P. S. & Pickett, C. L. (Eds.), Social neuroscience: People thinking about thinking people (pp. 167–187). The MIT Press.Google Scholar
Maslow, A. H. (1968). Toward a psychology of being. Van Nostrand.Google Scholar
McCauley, C., & Moskalenko, S. (2008). Mechanisms of political radicalization: Pathways toward terrorism. Terrorism and Political Violence, 20(3), 415–433. https://doi.org/10.1080/09546550802073367CrossRefGoogle Scholar
McCauley, C., & Moskalenko, S. (2017). Understanding political radicalization: The two-pyramids model. American Psychologist, 72(3), 205–216. https://doi.org/10.1037/amp0000062CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Moghaddam, F. M. (2005). The staircase to terrorism: A psychological exploration. American Psychologist, 60(2), 161–169. https://doi.org/10.1037/0003-066X.60.2.161CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Moskalenko, S., & McCauley, C. (2009). Measuring political mobilization: The distinction between activism and radicalism. Terrorism and Political Violence, 21(2), 239–260. https://doi.org/10.1080/09546550902765508CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Parker, T., & Sitter, N. (2016). The four horsemen of terrorism: It’s not waves, it’s strains. Terrorism and Political Violence, 28(2), 197–216. https://doi.org/10.1080/09546553.2015.1112277CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Pfahl-Traughber, A. (2020). Der Einzeltäter ist ein einzelner Täter: Eine Analyse von Fällen und deren Kontext im Rechtsterrorismus [The lone perpetrator is a single offender: An analysis of cases and their context in right-wing terrorism]. Kriminalistik, 74(2), 74–80.Google Scholar
Pfahl-Traughber, A. (2023). Rechtsterrorismus als Terminus und Untersuchungskonzept [Right-wing terrorism as a term and concept of investigation]. Zeitschrift für Polizeiwissenschaft und polizeiliche Praxis, 20(2), 36–46.Google Scholar
Pfundmair, M. (2019). Ostracism promotes a terroristic mindset. Behavioral Sciences of Terrorism and Political Aggression, 11(2), 134–148. https://doi.org/10.1080/19434472.2018.1443965CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Pfundmair, M., Aßmann, E., Kiver, B., et al. (2022). Pathways toward Jihadism in Western Europe: An empirical exploration of a comprehensive model of terrorist radicalization. Terrorism and Political Violence, 34(1), 48–70. https://doi.org/10.1080/09546553.2019.1663828CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Pfundmair, M., & Mahr, L. A. (2022a). Regaining power: How feelings of exclusion during COVID-19 are associated with radicalism among critics of containment policies. Frontiers in Psychology, 13. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2022.952760CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Pfundmair, M., & Mahr, L. A. (2022b). How group processes push excluded people into a radical mindset: An experimental investigation. Group Processes & Intergroup Relations, 26(6), 1289–1309. http://doi.org/10.1177/13684302221107782CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Pfundmair, M., Pachurka, R., Späth, P., & Witiska, T. (2022, February). Social exclusion in the life of terrorists [Presentation]. Twenty-third Meeting of the Society for Personality and Social Psychology, San Francisco, CA, USA.Google Scholar
Pfundmair, M., Pachurka, R., Späth, P., & Witiska, T. (2024). Empirical evidence on the accumulation of social exclusion in the lives of terrorists [Manuscript submitted for publication]. Faculty of Intelligence, Federal University of Administrative Sciences.Google Scholar
Pfundmair, M., & Schmidt, H. (2019). Der Weg zur Radikalisierung und zurück: Deradikalisierung und seine psychologischen Mechanismen in der Praxis [The path to radicalization and back: Deradicalization and its psychological mechanisms in practice]. Praxis der Rechtspsychologie, 29(1), 23–39.Google Scholar
Pfundmair, M., & Wetherell, G. (2019). Ostracism drives group moralization and extreme group behavior. The Journal of Social Psychology, 159(5), 518–530. https://doi.org/10.1080/00224545.2018.1512947CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Pfundmair, M., Wood, N. R., Hales, A., & Wesselmann, E. D. (2022). How social exclusion makes radicalism flourish: A review of empirical evidence. Journal of Social Issues, 1–19. https://doi.org/10.1111/josi.12520CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Pretus, C., Hamid, N., Sheikh, H., et al. (2018). Neural and behavioral correlates of sacred values and vulnerability to violent extremism. Frontiers in Psychology, 9, 2462. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2018.02462CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Przybilla, O. (2020a, November 26). Rechtsterrorismus in Cham: “Wie ein Soldat, der ins Leere schaut” [Right-wing terrorism in Cham: “Like a soldier looking into the void”]. Süddeutsche Zeitung. www.sueddeutsche.de/bayern/rechtsterror-cham-prozess-nuernberg-angeklagter-1.5128303Google Scholar
Przybilla, O. (2020b, November 27). Prozess in Nürnberg: Zuhause in einer Welt aus Hass [Trial in Nuremberg: At home in a world of hate]. Süddeutsche Zeitung. www.sueddeutsche.de/bayern/rechtsterror-cham-prozess-nuernberg-plaedoyer-1.5129702Google Scholar
Rapoport, D. C. (2001). The fourth wave: September 11 in the history of terrorism. Current History, 100(650), 419–429. https://doi.org/10.1525/curh.2001.100.650.419CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Rapoport, D. C. (2012). The four waves of modern terrorism. In Horgan, J. & Braddock, K. (Eds.), Terrorism studies: A reader (pp. 3–30). Routledge.Google Scholar
Renström, E. A., Bäck, H., & Knapton, H. M. (2020). Exploring a pathway to radicalization: The effects of social exclusion and rejection sensitivity. Group Processes & Intergroup Relations, 23(8), 1204–1229. https://doi.org/10.1177/1368430220917215CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Richards, A. (2015). From terrorism to “radicalization” to “extremism”: Counterterrorism imperative or loss of focus? International Affairs, 91(2), 371–380. https://doi.org/10.1111/1468-2346.12240CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Riva, P., Williams, K. D., Torstrick, A. M., & Montali, L. (2014). Orders to shoot (a camera): Effects of ostracism on obedience. The Journal of Social Psychology, 154(3), 208–216. https://doi.org/10.1080/00224545.2014.883354CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Rudert, S. C., Janke, S., & Greifeneder, R. (2021). Ostracism breeds depression: Longitudinal associations between ostracism and depression over a three-year-period. Journal of Affective Disorders Reports, 4, 100118. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jadr.2021.100118CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Sageman, M. (2004). Understanding terror networks. University of Pennsylvania Press. https://doi.org/10.9783/9780812206791CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Sageman, M. (2009). Hofstad case study & the Blob Theory: Theoretical frames on pathways to violent radicalization, ARTIS Research and Risk Modeling.Google Scholar
Saucier, G., Akers, L. G., Shen-Miller, S., Kneževié, G., & Stankov, L. (2009). Patterns of thinking in militant extremism. Perspectives on Psychological Science, 4(3), 256–271. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1745-6924.2009.01123CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Schuurman, B. (2020). Research on terrorism, 2007–2016: A review of data, methods, and authorship. Terrorism and Political Violence, 32(5), 1011–1026. https://doi.org/10.1080/09546553.2018.1439023CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Spaaij, R. (2010). The enigma of lone wolf terrorism: An assessment. Studies in Conflict & Terrorism, 33(9), 854–870. https://doi.org/10.1080/1057610X.2010.501426CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Sunstein, C. R. (2001). Why they hate us: The role of social dynamics. Harvard Journal of Law & Public Policy, 25, 429–440.Google Scholar
SwannJr, W. B., Gómez, A., Seyle, D. C., Morales, J., & Huici, C. (2009). Identity fusion: the interplay of personal and social identities in extreme group behavior. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 96(5), 995–1011. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0013668CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Treistman, J. (2021). Social exclusion and political violence: Multilevel analysis of the justification of terrorism. Studies in Conflict & Terrorism, 1–24. https://doi.org/10.1080/1057610X.2021.2007244CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Twenge, J. M., Baumeister, R. F., Tice, D. M., & Stucke, T. S. (2001). If you can’t join them, beat them: Effects of social exclusion on aggressive behavior. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 81(6), 1058–1069. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.81.6.1058CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Van Prooijen, J. W., & Krouwel, A. P. (2019). Psychological features of extreme political ideologies. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 28(2), 159–163. https://doi.org/10.1177/0963721418817755CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Warburton, W. A., Williams, K. D., & Cairns, D. R. (2006). When ostracism leads to aggression: The moderating effects of control deprivation. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 42(2), 213–220. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jesp.2005.03.005CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Webber, D., Chernikova, M., Kruglanski, A. W., et al. (2018). Deradicalizing detained terrorists. Political Psychology, 39(3), 539–556. https://doi.org/10.1111/pops.12428CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Wesselmann, E. D., Grzybowski, M. R., Steakley-Freeman, D. M., et al. (2016). Social exclusion in everyday life. In Riva, P. & Eck, J. (Eds.) Social exclusion: Psychological approaches to understanding and reducing its impact (pp. 3–23). Springer International Publishing. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-33033-4_1CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Wesselmann, E. D., Hales, A. H., Ren, D., & Williams, K. D. (2015). Ostracism threatens personal security: A temporal need threat framework. In Carroll, P. J., Arkin, R. M., & Wichman, A. L. (Eds.), The handbook of personal security (pp. 191–206). Routledge.Google Scholar
Williams, K. D. (2009). Ostracism: A temporal need‐threat model. Advances in Experimental Social Psychology, 41, 275–314. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0065-2601(08)00406-1CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Williams, K. D., Cheung, C. K., & Choi, W. (2000). Cyberostracism: effects of being ignored over the Internet. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 79(5), 748–762. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.79.5.748CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Williams, K. D., & Jarvis, B. (2006). Cyberball: A program for use in research on interpersonal ostracism and acceptance. Behavior Research Methods, 38(1), 174–180. https://doi.org/10.3758/BF03192765CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Wilner, A. S., & Dubouloz, C. J. (2010). Homegrown terrorism and transformative learning: An interdisciplinary approach to understanding radicalization. Global Change, Peace & Security, 22(1), 33–51. https://doi.org/10.1080/14781150903487956CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Wirth, J. H., Sacco, D. F., Hugenberg, K., & Williams, K. D. (2010). Eye gaze as relational evaluation: Averted eye gaze leads to feelings of ostracism and relational devaluation. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 36(7), 869–882. https://doi.org/10.1177/0146167210370032CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Xu, M., Qiao, L., Qi, S., et al. (2018). Social exclusion weakens storage capacity and attentional filtering ability in visual working memory. Social Cognitive and Affective Neuroscience, 13(1), 92–101. https://doi.org/10.1093/scan/nsx139CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Yousafzai, M. (n.d.). Quotes. Moab Valley Multicultural Center. https://moabmc.org/malala-yousafzaiGoogle Scholar
Zadro, L., Boland, C., & Richardson, R. (2006). How long does it last? The persistence of the effects of ostracism in the socially anxious. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 42(5), 692–697. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jesp.2005.10.007CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Zadro, L., Williams, K. D., & Richardson, R. (2004). How low can you go? Ostracism by a computer is sufficient to lower self-reported levels of belonging, control, self-esteem, and meaningful existence. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 40(4), 560–567. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jesp.2003.11.006CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Save book to Kindle

To save this book to your Kindle, first ensure [email protected] is added to your Approved Personal Document E-mail List under your Personal Document Settings on the Manage Your Content and Devices page of your Amazon account. Then enter the ‘name’ part of your Kindle email address below. Find out more about saving to your Kindle.

Note you can select to save to either the @free.kindle.com or @kindle.com variations. ‘@free.kindle.com’ emails are free but can only be saved to your device when it is connected to wi-fi. ‘@kindle.com’ emails can be delivered even when you are not connected to wi-fi, but note that service fees apply.

Find out more about the Kindle Personal Document Service.

Available formats
×

Save book to Dropbox

To save content items to your account, please confirm that you agree to abide by our usage policies. If this is the first time you use this feature, you will be asked to authorise Cambridge Core to connect with your account. Find out more about saving content to Dropbox.

Available formats
×

Save book to Google Drive

To save content items to your account, please confirm that you agree to abide by our usage policies. If this is the first time you use this feature, you will be asked to authorise Cambridge Core to connect with your account. Find out more about saving content to Google Drive.

Available formats
×