Citizenship is a multidimensional concept. It refers to (a) rights and duties, (b) the individual's ability to participate in various spheres of society, such as social, economic and political life, and (c) citizenship which helps to construct identities. Citizenship leads to inclusion in society, while loss of citizenship leads to exclusion or marginalisation. Within this frame of reference, the foregoing chapters have elaborated on theories, concepts and knowledge. They have contributed to the political and scientific debate concerning the relationship between changes in labour market, welfare policies, citizenship and marginalisation. The discussion frames a space rich with overlapping, conflicting scientific theories and political implications. However, so far the basic line of argument has never really been questioned. Thus, a common feature has been that these arguments proceeds from problems (labour market), then to deficits in remedies (welfare state) designed to rectify diminishing rights/participation (citizenship) and finally to marginalisation. Differences certainly exist – this has been shown by the way in which the authors contributing to this book have disagreed over the exact nature of the relationship between the labour market (problem or solution) and the welfare state (solution or problem). However, as a political project the authors unanimously agree that citizenship is good and marginalisation is bad.

Most probably, this is due to the fact that most research into the causes and effects of marginalisation and exclusion predominantly communicates with the political system. Researchers who actually use the concepts of marginalisation and exclusion usually have the objective of developing new empirical insights that may pave the way for the formulation of new strategies and new policies for re-integrating marginalised and excluded groups back into the societal fabric. Hence, researchers who use the concepts of marginalisation and exclusion use, as a starting point for their analysis, observations of marginalised positions, such as long-term unemployment, social vulnerability and poverty. Questions such as ‘from what and by whom are vulnerable groups excluded?’, ‘why is integration desirable?’ and ‘into what are they being integrated?’ are seldom thematised. Much research into marginalisation and exclusion rests on an implicit notion of normality and deviance, on the basis of which observations are made, interpretations promulgated and distinctions theorised into models. As a consequence, research into marginalisation and exclusion is first and foremost descriptive and normative, leaving the relationship between the phenomena in focus and the changes in their societal perception in the shade as ‘objective’ staging.