Introduction

The peopling of Australia and the Americas occurred after fully modern humans had evolved. Most of tropical and temperate Africa, Europe and Asia were peopled long before Australia, the last of the major Old World regions to be occupied, was colonised around fifty thousand years ago. Between 50,000 and 30,000 bp, humans with sophisticated cultural equipment were pressing into colder latitudes of northern Eurasia and had developed watercraft capable of near-shore maritime travel. Ocean margins were becoming part of the human niche. Glacial conditions advanced southwards from the Arctic 30,000 to 22,000 bp and then retreated by 13,000 bp, greatly affecting plants, animals and humans in the Northern Hemisphere.

Arriving at, and colonising, the Americas is a significant but not extraordinary chapter in human history – just another step in a long evolutionary journey. Humans were biologically and culturally preadapted to vast temperate and tropical areas of this hemisphere. These were in reach when human technology overcame harsh Arctic and Sub-Arctic marine and terrestrial environments and tapped rich circumpolar marine resources of fish, sea mammals, birds and land mammals. Some species of fish, sea mammals and birds occur in these northern waters in staggering numbers. These resources would be irresistible challenges to human ingenuity. Colonisers of the Americas were fully adapted to northern latitudes, were equipped with boats and possessed all of the ingenuity of modern humans. Colonisation may have come by way of the Pacific, the Atlantic or both.