Social and economic history is seldom marked by distinct turning points. In the Han period, each of the four centuries witnessed major developments in the organization of the society and economy. Still, the society of the first century A.D. was very close to that of the first century B.C., with established patterns largely continued, and it is purely as a matter of convenience that the social and economic history of the dynasty is viewed here in terms of two periods rather than three or four. Because of the numerous continuities between Former and Later Han, a full description of the economic and social life of the Later Han is not necessary. Such matters as diet, housing, clothing, means of transport, the organization of families, villages, and enterprises changed only very slowly during Han, often too slowly for changes to be perceived in the kinds of sources surviving today. Moreover, the basic features of agricultural technology and financial administration have already been described in preceding chapters. In this chapter emphasis will be placed on describing and analyzing major structural changes in the economy and society, such as the reorganization of agricultural production, the emergence of new forms of local organization, and the continuing evolution of the composition of the upper class.

ECONOMIC HISTORY

From a reading of the Standard Histories one might think that a major shift in economic development occurred between the Former and the Later Han. In Later Han sources, great merchants are mentioned less frequently, and “drifting” peasants are mentioned much more frequently.