Skip to main content Accessibility help

We use cookies to distinguish you from other users and to provide you with a better experience on our websites. Close this message to accept cookies or find out how to manage your cookie settings.

Close cookie message
×
Hostname: page-component-cd9895bd7-7cvxr Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-12-23T05:01:53.674Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false

9 - Changes in Organizational Income Inequality

The Causes and Consequences

from Part II - What Has Changed?

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  02 April 2020

By
Lixin Jiang
Edited by
Brian J. Hoffman ,
Mindy K. Shoss  and
Lauren A. Wegman
Brian J. Hoffman
Affiliation:
University of Georgia
Mindy K. Shoss
Affiliation:
University of Central Florida
Lauren A. Wegman
Affiliation:
University of Georgia
Get access

Summary

While top managers’ compensation skyrockets, typical American workers’ real wages have been stagnating for over three decades, thereby contributing to organizational income inequality. In an attempt to understand changes in organizational income inequality, I summarize changes in reward distributions within organizations and elaborate on the consequences of such changes on powerful managers, powerless employees, and their interactions.

Keywords

income inequalitywage stagnationpay dispersionCEO-to-worker pay ratiomanagerial power theory
Type
Chapter
Information
The Cambridge Handbook of the Changing Nature of Work , pp. 192 - 213
Publisher: Cambridge University Press
Print publication year: 2020

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

Abraham, K. G. (1990). Restructuring the employment relationship: The growth of market-mediated work arrangements. In Abraham, K. G. & McKersie, R. (Eds.), New developments in the labor market: Toward a new institutional paradigm (pp. 85–119). Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.Google Scholar
Adams, J. S. (1963). Toward an understanding of inequity. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 67, 422–436.Google Scholar
Akerlof, G. A., & Yellen, J. L. (1990). The fair wage-effort hypothesis and unemployment. Quarterly Journal of Economics, 105(2), 255–283.Google Scholar
Anderson, C., & Galinsky, A. D. (2006). Power, optimism, and risktaking. European Journal of Social Psychology, 36, 511–536.Google Scholar
Anderson, C., Keltner, D. J., & John, O. P. (2003). Emotional convergence between people over time. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 84, 1054–1068.Google Scholar
Anderson, S., Cavanagh, J., Collins, C., Pizzigati, S., & Lapham, M. (2007). Executive excess 2008: How average taxpayers subsidize runaway pay. Retrieved from http://d3n8a8pro7vhmx.cloudfront.net/ufe/legacy_url/625/executive_excess_2008.pdf?1448063043Google Scholar
Andersson, L. M., & Bateman, T. S. (1997). Cynicism in the workplace: Some causes and effects. Journal of Organizational Behavior, 18(5), 449–469.Google Scholar
Autor, D. H., & Houseman, S. N. (2010). Do temporary help jobs improve labor market outcomes for low skilled workers? Evidence from “work first.” American Economic Journal: Applied Economics, 2(3), 96–128.Google Scholar
Autor, D. H., Dorn, D., & Hanson, G. H. (2016). The China shock: Learning from labor-market adjustment to large changes in trade. Annual Review of Economics, 8, 205–240.Google Scholar
Bakija, J., Cole, A., & Heim, B. T. (2012). Jobs and income growth of top earners and the causes of changing income inequality: Evidence from US tax return data. Unpublished manuscript. Williams College, Williamstown, MA.Google Scholar
Balsam, S. (2012). Taxes and executive compensation. Education Policy Institute. Retrieved from www.epi.org/publication/taxes-executive-compensation/Google Scholar
Balsam, S., & Ryan, D. (2008). The effect of Internal Revenue Code Section 162 (m) on the issuance of stock options. In Hasseldine, J. (Ed.), Advances in Taxation (pp. 3–28). Bingley, UK: Emerald Group Publishing Limited.Google Scholar
Banker, R. D., Lee, S. Y., Gordon, P., & Srinivasan, D. (1996). Contextual analysis of performance impacts of outcome-based incentive compensation. Academy of Management Journal, 39(4), 920–948.Google Scholar
Banning, K., & Chiles, T. (2007). Trade-offs in the labor union-CEO compensation relationship. Journal of Labor Research, 28(2), 347–357.Google Scholar
Bapuji, H. (2015). Individuals, interactions and institutions: How economic inequality affects organizations. Human Relations, 68(7), 1059–1083.Google Scholar
Bapuji, H., & Neville, L. (2015). Income inequality ignored? An agenda for business and strategic organization. Strategic Organization, 13(3), 233–246.Google Scholar
Bargh, J. A., Raymond, P., Pryor, J. B., & Strack, F. (1995). Attractiveness of the underling: An automatic power → sex association and its consequences for sexual harassment and aggression. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 68, 768–781.Google Scholar
Barkema, H. G. & Pennings, J. M. (1998). Top management pay: Impact of overt and covert power. Organization Studies, 19, 975–1003.Google Scholar
Barley, S. R., & Kunda, G. (2004). Gurus, hired guns and warm bodies: Itinerant experts in a knowledge economy. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.Google Scholar
Baumgartner, F., Berry, J., Hojnacki, M., Kimball, D., & Leech, B. (2009). Lobbying and policy change: Who wins, who loses, and why. Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press.Google Scholar
Bebchuk, L. A., & Fried, J. M. (2003). Executive compensation as an agency problem. Journal of Economic Perspectives, 17(3), 71–92.Google Scholar
Bebchuk, L., & Fried, J. (2004). Pay without performance, Vol. 29. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.Google Scholar
Benson, W. L., Probst, T. M., Jiang, L., Olson, K. J., & Graso, M. (in press). Insecurity in the ivory tower: Direct and indirect effects of pay stagnation and job insecurity on faculty performance. Economic and Industrial Democracy.Google Scholar
Berman, J. (2016). FedEx to settle driver misclassification lawsuit for $240 million. Logistics Management. Retrieved from www.logisticsmgmt.com/article/fedex_to_settle_driver_misclassification_lawsuit_for_240_millionGoogle Scholar
Bidwell, M. J. (2013). What happened to long-term employment? The role of worker power and environmental turbulence in explaining declines in worker tenure. Organization Science, 24(4), 1061–1082.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bidwell, M. J., & Briscoe, F. S. (2009). Who contracts? Determinants of the decision to work as an independent contractor among information technology workers. Academy of Management Journal, 52(6), 1148–1168.Google Scholar
Bidwell, M.J., & Fernandez-Mateo, I. (2008). Three’s a crowd? Understanding triadic employment relationships. In Cappelli, P. (Ed.), Employment relationships: New models of white collar work (pp. 142–178). New York, NY: Cambridge University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bidwell, M., Briscoe, F., Fernandez-Mateo, I., & Sterling, A. (2013). The employment relationship and inequality: How and why changes in employment practices are reshaping rewards in organizations. Academy of Management Annals, 7(1), 61–121.Google Scholar
Bivens, J., & Mishel, L. (2013). The pay of corporate executives and financial professionals as evidence of rents in top 1 percent incomes. Journal of Economic Perspectives, 27, 57–78.Google Scholar
Bloom, M. (1999). The performance effects of pay dispersion on individuals and organizations. Academy of Management Journal, 42, 25–40.Google Scholar
Briscoe, F., & Murphy, C. (2012). Sleight of hand? Practice opacity, third-party responses, and the interorganizational diffusion of controversial practices. Administrative Science Quarterly, 57(4), 553–584.Google Scholar
Buchmueller, T. C., DiNardo, J., & Valletta, R. G. (2002). Union effects on health insurance provision and coverage in the United States. Industrial & Labor Relations Review, 55(4), 610–627.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Budros, A. (1999). A conceptual framework for analyzing why organizations downsize. Organization Science, 10(1), 69–82.Google Scholar
Bureau of Labor Statistics (2018). Union members summary. Retrieved from www.bls.gov/news.release/union2.nr0.htmGoogle Scholar
Bushee, B. J. (2004). Identifying and attracting the “right” investors: Evidence on the behavior of institutional investors. Journal of Applied Corporate Finance, 16, 28–34.Google Scholar
Cappelli, P., & Keller, J. R. (2013). Classifying work in the new economy. Academy of Management Review, 38(4), 575–596.Google Scholar
Castilla, E.J. (2008). Gender, race, and meritocracy in organizational careers. American Journal of Sociology, 113(6), 1479–1526.Google Scholar
Castilla, E.J., & Benard, S. (2010). The paradox of meritocracy in organizations. Administrative Science Quarterly, 55(4), 543–676.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Chen, C. X., & Sandino, T. (2012). Can wages buy honesty? The relationship between relative wage and employee theft. Journal of Accounting Research, 50(4), 967–1000.Google Scholar
Chen, S., Lee-Chai, A.Y., & Bargh, J.A. (2001). Relationship orientation as moderator of the effects of social power. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 80, 183–187.Google Scholar
Cobb, J. A. (2011). The employment contract broken? The (non) abandonment of defined benefit pensions (Working paper). Ann Arbor, MI: Wharton School of Business.Google Scholar
Cobb, J. A. (2012). From the ‘Treaty of Detroit’ to the 401(k): The development and evolution of privatized retirement in the United States (Doctoral dissertation, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI, USA).Google Scholar
Cobb, J. A. (2016). How firms shape income inequality: Stakeholder power, executive decision making, and the structuring of employment relationships. Academy of Management Review, 41(2), 324–348.Google Scholar
Connelly, B. L., Haynes, K. T., Tihanyi, L., Gamache, D. L., & Devers, C. E. (2016). Minding the gap: Antecedents and consequences of top management-to-worker pay dispersion. Journal of Management, 42(4), 862–885.Google Scholar
Cropanzano, R., & Prehar, C.A. (2001). Emerging justice concerns in an era of changing psychological contracts. In Cropanzano, R. (Ed.), Justice in the workplace: From theory to practice. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, pp. 245–269.Google Scholar
Crosby, F. (1976). A model of egoistical relative deprivation. Psychological Review, 83(2), 85–113.Google Scholar
Crystal, G. S. (1991). In search of excess: The overcompensation of American executives. New York, NY: W. W. Norton & Co.Google Scholar
Davis, G. F., & Cobb, J. A. (2010). Corporations and economic inequality around the world: The paradox of hierarchy. Research in Organizational Behavior, 30, 35–53.Google Scholar
Denning, S. (2018). How to fix stagnant wages: Dump the world’s dumbest idea. Forbes. Retrieved from www.forbes.com/sites/stevedenning/2018/07/26/how-to-fix-stagnant-wages-dump-the-worlds-dumbest-idea/#6b5bba771abcGoogle Scholar
Desai, S. D., Brief, A. P., & George, J. (2009). Meaner managers: A consequence of income inequality. In Kramer, R. M., Tenbrunsel, A. E., & Bazerman, M.H. (Eds.), Social decision making: Social dilemmas, social values, and ethical judgments. New York, NY: Psychology Press, 315–334.Google Scholar
Desai, S.D., & Yao, T. (2015). Organizational income inequality: Rising wage disparities and worsening work conditions. Kenan-Flagler Business School Working paper.Google Scholar
Desilver, D. (2014). For most workers, real wages have barely budged for decades. Pew Research Center. Retrieved from www.pewresearch.org/fact-tank/2014/10/09/for-most-workers-real-wages-have-barely-budged-for-decades/Google Scholar
Ding, D. Z., Akhtar, S., & Ge, G. L. (2009). Effects of inter-and intra-hierarchy wage dispersions on firm performance in Chinese enterprises. International Journal of Human Resource Management, 20(11), 2370–2381.Google Scholar
DiPrete, T. A., Goux, D., & Maurin, E. (2002). Internal labor markets and earnings trajectories in the post-Fordist economy: An analysis of recent trends. Social Science Research, 31(2), 175–196.Google Scholar
Elvira, M. M., & Graham, M. E. (2002). Not just a formality: Pay system formalization and sex-related earnings effects. Organization Science, 13(6), 601–617.Google Scholar
Farber, H. S. (2008). Employment insecurity: The decline in worker–firm attachment in the United States (Working paper). Princeton University Industrial Relations Section.Google Scholar
Farber, H. S., & Hallock, K. F. (2009). The changing relationship between job loss announcements and stock prices: 1970–1999. Labor Economics, 16(1), 1–11.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Farber, H. S., & Levy, H. (2000). Recent trends in employer-sponsored health insurance coverage: Are bad jobs getting worse? Journal of Health Economics, 19, 93–119.Google Scholar
Finkelstein, S. (1992). Power in top management teams: Dimensions, measurement, and validation. Academy of Management Journal, 35(3), 505–538.Google Scholar
Finkelstein, S., & Hambrick, D. C. (1988). Chief executive compensation: A synthesis and reconciliation. Strategic Management Journal, 9, 543–558.Google Scholar
Finkelstein, S., & Hambrick, D. C. (1989). Chief executive compensation: A study of the intersection of markets and political processes. Strategic Management Journal, 10, 121–134.Google Scholar
Finkelstein, S., & Hambrick, D. C. (1996). Strategic leadership: Top executives and their organizations. Minneapolis, MN: West Publishing Company.Google Scholar
Finkelstein, S., Hambrick, D. C., & Cannella, A. A. (2009). Strategic leadership: Theory and research on executives, top management teams, and boards. New York, NY: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Fiske, S. T. (1993). Controlling other people: The impact of power on stereotyping. American Psychologist, 48, 621–628.Google Scholar
French, J. R. P., & Raven, B. (1959). The bases of social power. In Cartwright, D. (Ed.), Studies in social power (pp. 150–167). Ann Arbor, MI: University of Michigan Press.Google Scholar
Fronstin, P. (2012). Employment-based health benefits: Trends in access and coverage, 1997–2010 (Issue Brief No. 370). Washington, DC: Employee Benefits Research Institute.Google Scholar
Galinsky, A. D., Gruenfeld, D. H., & Magee, J. C. (2003). From power to action. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 85, 453–466.Google Scholar
Galinsky, A. D., Magee, J. C., Inesi, M. E., & Gruenfeld, D. H. (2006). Power and perspectives not taken. Psychological Science, 17, 1068–1074.Google Scholar
Gelles, D. (2018). Want to make money like a C.E.O.? Work for 275 years. New York Times, May 25. Retrieved from www.nytimes.com/2018/05/25/business/highest-paid-ceos-2017.htmlGoogle Scholar
Georgesen, J. C., & Harris, M. J. (1998). Why’s my boss always holding me down? A meta-analysis of power effects on performance evaluations. Personality & Social Psychology Review, 2, 184–195.Google Scholar
Georgesen, J. C., & Harris, M. J. (2000). The balance of power: Interpersonal consequences of differential power and expectancies. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 26(10), 1239–1257.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Gerhart, B., & Milkovich, G. T. (1990). Organizational differences in managerial compensation and financial performance. Academy of Management Journal, 33(4), 663–691.Google Scholar
Gino, F., & Pierce, L. (2009). The abundance effect: Unethical behavior in the presence of wealth. Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes, 109(2), 142–155.Google Scholar
Gramm, C.L., & Schnell, J.F. (2001). The use of flexible staffing arrangements in core production jobs. Industrial & Labor Relations Review, 54(2), 245–258.Google Scholar
Grant, T. (2014). How One Company Levels the Pay Slope of Executives and Workers. Globe and Mail, January 13. Retrieved from www.theglobeandmail.com/news/national/time-to-lead/how-one-companylevels-the-pay-slope-of-executives-and-workers/article15472738/Google Scholar
Greenberg, J. (1990). Employee theft as a reaction to underpayment inequity: The hidden cost of pay cuts. Journal of Applied Psychology, 75(5), 561–568.Google Scholar
Greenhouse, S. (2008). The big squeeze: Tough times for the American worker. New York, NY: Knopf.Google Scholar
Groth, A. N. (1979). Men who rape: The psychology of the offender. New York, NY: Plenum Press.Google Scholar
Guo, L., Libby, T., & Liu, X. K. (2017). The effects of vertical pay dispersion: Experimental evidence in a budget setting. Contemporary Accounting Research, 34(1), 555–576.Google Scholar
Gupta, N., Conroy, S. A., & Delery, J. E. (2012). The many faces of pay variation. Human Resource Management Review, 22: 100–115.Google Scholar
Hacker, J. S., & Pierson, P. (2010). Winner-take-all politics: Public policy, political organization, and the precipitous rise of top incomes in the United States. Politics & Society, 38(2), 152–204.Google Scholar
Hallock, K. F. (2009). Job loss and the fraying of the implicit employment contract. Journal of Economic Perspectives, 23(4), 69–93.Google Scholar
Hambrick, D. C., & D’Aveni, R. A. (1992). Top team deterioration as part of the downward spiral of large corporate bankruptcies. Management Science, 38, 1445–1466.Google Scholar
Harris, D. G., & Livingstone, J. R. (2002). Federal tax legislation as an implicit contracting cost benchmark: The definition of excessive executive compensation. Accounting Review, 77(4), 997–1018.Google Scholar
Henderson, A. D., & Fredrickson, J. W. (1996). Information-processing demands as a determinant of CEO compensation. Academy of Management Journal, 39, 575–606.Google Scholar
Heneman, R. L., & Werner, J. M. (2005). Merit pay: Linking pay to performance in a changing world. Washington, DC: Information Age Publishing.Google Scholar
Hobfoll, S. E. (1989). Conservation of resources: A new attempt at conceptualizing stress. American Psychologist, 44(3), 513–524.Google Scholar
Hollister, M. N. (2004). Does firm size matter anymore? The new economy and firm size wage effects. American Sociological Review, 69(5), 659–676.Google Scholar
Hollister, M. N. (2011). Employment stability in the US labor market: Rhetoric vs. reality. Annual Review of Sociology, 37(1), 305–324.Google Scholar
Houseman, S. N. (2001). Why employers use flexible staffing arrangements: Evidence from an establishment survey. Industrial & Labor Relations Review, 55(1), 149–170.Google Scholar
Houseman, S. N., & Polivka, A. (2000). The implications of flexible staffing arrangements for job stability. In Newmark, D. (Ed.), On the job: Is long-term employment a thing of the past? (pp. 427–462). New York, NY: Russell Sage Foundation.Google Scholar
Houseman, S. N., Kalleberg, A. L., & Erickcek, G. A. (2003). The role of temporary agency employment in tight labor markets. Industrial & Labor Relations Review, 57(1), 103–127.Google Scholar
Jones, E. E., & Nisbett, R.E. (1972). The actor and the observer: Divergent perceptions of causality. In Jones, E. E., Kanouse, D. E., Kelley, H. H., Nisbett, R. E., Valins, S., & Weiner, B. (Eds.), Attribution: Perceiving the cause of behavior (pp. 79–94). Morristown, NJ: General Learning Press.Google Scholar
Kaiser Family Foundation/HRET. (2012). Kaiser Family Foundation/Health Research & Educational Trust survey of employer-sponsored health benefits. Retrieved from www.kff.org and as American Hospital Association/Health Research & Educational Trust catalog no. 097523.Google Scholar
Kalleberg, A. L. (2000). Nonstandard employment relations: Part-time, temporary and contract work. Annual Review of Sociology, 26, 341–365.Google Scholar
Kalleberg, A. L., Reskin, B. F., & Hudson, K. (2000). Bad jobs in America: Standard and nonstandard employment relations and job quality in the United States. American Sociological Review, 65(2), 256–278.Google Scholar
Keene, J., & Prokos, A. (2007). Comparing offers and take-ups of employee health insurance across race, gender, and decade. Sociological Inquiry, 77(3), 425–459.Google Scholar
Kipnis, D. (1972). Does power corrupt? Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 24, 33–41.Google Scholar
Kipnis, D. (1976). The powerholders. Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press.Google Scholar
Kipnis, D., Schmidt, S., Price, K., & Stitt, C. (1981). Why do I like thee: Is it your performance or my orders? Journal of Applied Psychology, 66, 324–328.Google Scholar
Kunda, G., Barley, S. R., & Evans, J. (2002). Why do contractors contract? The experience of highly skilled technical professionals in a contingent labor market. Industrial & Labor Relations Review, 55(2), 234–261.Google Scholar
Lambert, R. A., & Larcher, D. F., & Weigelt, K. (1993). The structure of organizational incentives. Administrative Science Quarterly, 38, 438–461.Google Scholar
Laverty, K. J. (1996). Economic “short-termism”: The debate, the unresolved issues, and the implications for management practice and research. Academy of Management Review, 21, 825–860.Google Scholar
Lazear, E. P. (2000). Performance pay and productivity. American Economic Review, 90(5), 1346–1361.Google Scholar
Lazear, E., & Rosen, S. (1981). Rank-order tournaments as optimum labor contracts. Journal of Political Economy, 89, 841–864.Google Scholar
Lemieux, T. (2006). Increasing residual wage inequality: Composition effects, noisy data, or rising demand for skill? The American Economic Review 96(3), 461–498.Google Scholar
Lemieux, T., Macleod, W. B., & Parent, D. (2009). Performance pay and wage inequality. Quarterly Journal of Economics, 124(1), 1–49.Google Scholar
Lepak, D.P., Takeuchi, R., & Snell, S.A. (2003). Employment flexibility and firm performance: Examining the interaction effects of employment mode, environmental dynamism, and technological intensity. Journal of Management, 29, 681–703.Google Scholar
Lindskold, S., & Aronoff, J. R. (1980). Conciliatory strategies and relative power. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology,16, 187–198.Google Scholar
Little, J. (1995). The impact of employer payments for health insurance and social security on the premium for education and earnings inequality. New England Economic Review, , May/June, 25–40.Google Scholar
Marler, J. H., & Faugère, C. (2010). Shareholder activism and middle management equity incentives. Corporate Governance: An International Review, 18(4), 313–328.Google Scholar
Marler, J. H., Barringer, M. W., & Milkovich, G. T. (2002). Boundaryless and traditional contingent employees: Worlds apart. Journal of Organizational Behavior, 23, 425–453.Google Scholar
Maxwell, J., Briscoe, F., & Temin, P. (2000). Corporate health care purchasing and the revised social contract with workers. Business and Society, 39, 281–303.Google Scholar
Mishel, L. (2015). Causes of wage stagnation. Economic Policy Institute. Retrieved from www.epi.org/publication/causes-of-wage-stagnation/Google Scholar
Mishel, L., & Davis, A. (2015). Top CEOs make 300 times more than typical workers: Pay growth surpasses stock gains and wage growth of top 0.1 percent. Economic Policy Institute. Retrieved from www.epi.org/publication/top-ceos-make-300-times-more-than-workers-pay-growth-surpasses-market-gains-and-the-rest-of-the-0-1-percent/Google Scholar
Mishel, L., & Schieder, J. (2017). CEO pay remains high relative to the pay of typical workers and high-wage earners. Economic Policy Institute. Retrieved from www.epi.org/publication/ceo-pay-remains-high-relative-to-the-pay-of-typical-workers-and-high-wage-earners/Google Scholar
Mishel, L., Bivens, J., Gould, E., & Shierholz, H. (2012). The state of working America(12th ed.). Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press.Google Scholar
Mishel, L., Gould, E., & Bivens, J. (2015). Wage stagnation in nine charts. Economic Policy Institute. Retrieved from www.epi.org/publication/charting-wage-stagnation/Google Scholar
Munnell, A. H., Haverstick, K., & Sanzenbacher, G. (2006). Job tenure and pension coverage (Working Papers, pp. 1–35). Chestnut Hill, MA: Center for Retirement Research.Google Scholar
Nayar, N., & Willinger, G. L. (2001). Financial implications of the decision to increase reliance on contingent labor. Decision Sciences, 32(4), 661–681.Google Scholar
Neumark, D., Polsky, D., & Hansen, D. (1999). Has job stability declined yet? New evidence for the 1990s. Journal of Labor Economics, 17(4), S29–S64.Google Scholar
Osterman, P. (1999). Securing prosperity. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.Google Scholar
Pfeffer, J., & Baron, J. N. (1988). Taking the workers back out: Recent trends in the structuring of employment. Research in Organizational Behavior, 10, 257–303.Google Scholar
Pfeffer, J., & Langton, N. (1993). The effect of wage dispersion on satisfaction, productivity, and working collaboratively: Evidence from college and university faculty. Administrative Science Quarterly, 38(3), 382–407.Google Scholar
Pierce, B. (2001). Compensation inequality. Quarterly Journal of Economics, 116(4), 1493–1525.Google Scholar
Poujol, F. J., & Tanner, J. F. (2009). The impact of contests on salespeople’s customer orientation: An application of tournament theory. Journal of Personal Selling and Sales Management, 30, 33–46.Google Scholar
Pryor, J. B. (1987). Sexual harassment proclivities in men. Sex Roles, 17, 269–290.Google Scholar
Pryor, J. B., LaVite, C. M. & Stoller, L. M. (1993). A social psychological model for predicting sexual harassment. Journal of Vocational Behavior,42, 68–83.Google Scholar
Riddell, C. (2011). Compensation policy and quit rates: A multilevel approach using benchmarking data. Industrial Relations: A Journal of Economy and Society, 50(4), 656–677.Google Scholar
Rose, N. L., & Wolfram, C. (2002). Regulating executive pay: Using the tax code to influence chief executive officer compensation. Journal of Labor Economics, 20(S2), S138–S175.Google Scholar
Sahaym, A., Steensma, H. K., & Schilling, M. A. (2007). The influence of information technology on the use of loosely coupled organizational forms: An industry level analysis. Organization Science, 18(5), 865–880.Google Scholar
Segal, L. M., & Sullivan, D. G. (1997). The growth of temporary services work. Journal of Economic Perspectives, 11(2), 117–136.Google Scholar
Shaw, J. D. (2014). Pay dispersion. Annual Review in Organizational Psychology and Organizational Behaviour, 1, 521–544.Google Scholar
Shearer, B. (2004). Piece rates, fixed wages and incentives: Evidence from a field experiment. Review of Economic Studies, 71(2), 513–534.Google Scholar
Shuey, K., & O’Rand, A. (2004). New risks for workers: Pensions, labor markets, and gender. Annual Review of Sociology, 30, 435–477.Google Scholar
Shuman, M. (2017). Why wages aren’t growing. Bloomberg. Retrieved from www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2017-09-21/why-wages-aren-t-growingGoogle Scholar
Sjöberg, O. (2009). Corporate governance and earnings inequality in the OECD countries 1979–2000. European Sociological Review, 25, 519–533.Google Scholar
Slottje, D., Woodbury, S., & Anderson, R. (2000). Employee benefits and the distribution of income and wealth. In William, W. T., Alpert, T., & Woodbury, S. A. (Eds.), Employee benefits and labor markets in Canada and the United States (pp. 349–378). Kalamazoo, MI: W. E. Upjohn Institute for Employment Research.Google Scholar
Smola, K. W., & Sutton, C. (2002). Generational differences: Revisiting generational work values for the new millennium. Journal of Organizational Behavior, 23, 363–382.Google Scholar
Stainback, K., Tomaskovic-Devey, D., & Skaggs, S. (2010). Organizational approaches to inequality: Inertia, relative power, and environments. Annual Review of Sociology, 36, 225–247.Google Scholar
Steers, R., & Ungson, G. R. (1987). Strategic issues in executive compensation decisions. In Balkin, D. B. & Gomez-Mejia, L. R. (Eds.), New perspectives on compensation (pp. 315–327). Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall.Google Scholar
Steinberg, J. (2018). CEO’s stock award from Chinese smartphone maker Xiaomi is one of the largest ever: Lei Jun gets about $1.5 billion ahead of company’s listing in Hong Kong. Wall Street Journal, June 23. www.wsj.com/articles/ceos-stock-award-from-chinese-smartphone-maker-xiaomi-is-one-of-the-largest-ever-1529688807Google Scholar
Thompson, J., & Smeeding, T. (2014). Income inequality. The Stanford Center on Poverty and Inequality. Retrieved from https://inequality.stanford.edu/sites/default/files/media/_media/pdf/pathways/special_sotu_2014/Pathways_SOTU_2014_Income_Inequality.pdfGoogle Scholar
Tiedens, L. Z. (2000). Powerful emotions: The vicious cycle of social status positions and emotions. In Ashkanasy, N. M., Härtel, C. E., & Zerbe, W. J. (Eds.), Emotions in the workplace: Research, theory, and practice (pp. 72–81). Westport, CT: Quorum Books/Greenwood Publishing Group.Google Scholar
Turnley, W. H., & Feldman, D. C. (1998). Psychological contract violations during corporate restructuring. Human Resources Management 37(1), 71–83.Google Scholar
Ungson, G. R, & Steers, R. M. (1984). Motivation and politics in executive compensation. Academy of Management Review, 9, 313–323.Google Scholar
Van Kleef, G. A., De Dreu, C. K. W., Pietroni, D., & Manstead, A. S. R. (2006). Power and emotion in negotiation: Power moderates the interpersonal effects of anger and happiness on concession making. European Journal of Social Psychology, 36, 557–581.Google Scholar
Wade, J. B., O’Reilly, C. A., & Chandradat, I. (1990). Golden parachutes: CEOs and the exercise of social influence. Administrative Science Quarterly, 35, 587–603.Google Scholar
Western, B., & Rosenfeld, J. (2011). Unions, norms, and the rise in US wage inequality. American Sociological Review, 76(4), 513–537.Google Scholar
Whistler, T. L., Meyer, H., Baum, B. H., & Sorensen, P. F. Jr. (1967). Centralization of organizational control: An empirical study of its meaning and measurement. Journal of Business, 40, 10–26.Google Scholar
Wiens-Tuers, B., & Hill, E. (2002). How did we get here from there? Movement into temporary employment. Journal of Economic Issues, 36(2), 303–311.Google Scholar
Wood, R. W. (2015). FedEx settles independent contractor mislabeling case for $228 million. Forbes. Retrieved from www.forbes.com/sites/robertwood/2015/06/16/fedex-settles-driver-mislabeling-case-for-228-million/#793d62e7c22eGoogle Scholar
Yanadori, Y., & Cui, V. (2013). Creating incentives for innovation? The relationship between pay dispersion in RandD groups and firm innovation performance. Strategic Management Journal, 34(12), 1502–1511.Google Scholar
Zafirovski, M. (2005). Social exchange theory under scrutiny: A positive critique of its economic-behaviorist formulations. Electronic Journal of Sociology, 2(2), 1–40.Google Scholar
Zimbardo, P. (2007). The Lucifer effect: Understanding how good people turn evil. New York, NY: Random House.Google Scholar

Save book to Kindle

To save this book to your Kindle, first ensure [email protected] is added to your Approved Personal Document E-mail List under your Personal Document Settings on the Manage Your Content and Devices page of your Amazon account. Then enter the ‘name’ part of your Kindle email address below. Find out more about saving to your Kindle.

Note you can select to save to either the @free.kindle.com or @kindle.com variations. ‘@free.kindle.com’ emails are free but can only be saved to your device when it is connected to wi-fi. ‘@kindle.com’ emails can be delivered even when you are not connected to wi-fi, but note that service fees apply.

Find out more about the Kindle Personal Document Service.

Available formats
×

Save book to Dropbox

To save content items to your account, please confirm that you agree to abide by our usage policies. If this is the first time you use this feature, you will be asked to authorise Cambridge Core to connect with your account. Find out more about saving content to Dropbox.

Available formats
×

Save book to Google Drive

To save content items to your account, please confirm that you agree to abide by our usage policies. If this is the first time you use this feature, you will be asked to authorise Cambridge Core to connect with your account. Find out more about saving content to Google Drive.

Available formats
×