Amsterdam, Anthony (2007). “Opening Remarks: Race and the Death Penalty Before and After McCleskey,” Columbia Human Rights Law Review 39: 34–58.Google Scholar

Anderson, Elijah (1990). Streetwise: Race, Class, and Change in an Urban Community. Chicago: Univ. of Chicago Press.Google Scholar

Anderson, Elijah (1999). Code of the Street: Decency, Violence, and the Moral Life of the Inner City. New York: W.W. Norton.Google Scholar

Baker, Al and Mueller, Benjamin (2016). A Shooting, the Hospital and Then, Months Later, It’s a Homicide. New York Times, May 8, 2016, at A1, available at https://nyti.ms/1TuWVAq.Google Scholar

Baime, David (2001). Report to the New Jersey Supreme Court Systemic Proportionality Review Project. Trenton, N.J.: New Jersey Supreme Commission.Google Scholar

Baldus, David C., Pulaski, Charles and Woodworth, George (1983). “Comparative Review of Death Sentences: An Empirical Study of the Georgia Experience,” The Journal of Criminal Law and Criminology 74: 661–753.Google Scholar

Baldus, David C., Pulaski, Charles and Woodworth, George (1986). “Arbitrariness and Discrimination in the Administration of the Death Penalty: A Challenge to State Supreme Courts,” Stetson Law Review 15:133–261.Google Scholar

Baldus, David C., Woodworth, George and Pulaski, Charles, Jr. (1990). Equal Justice and the Death Penalty. Boston: Northeastern University Press.Google Scholar

Baldus, David C., Pulaski, Charles and Woodworth, George. 1987. Brief for Petitioner, i, 481 U.S. 279 (1987) (No. 84–6811).Google Scholar

Baldus, David C., Woodworth, George, Zuckerman, D., Weiner, Neil, and Broffitt, B. (1998). “Racial Discrimination and the Death Penalty in the Post-Furman Era: An Empirical and Legal Overview, with Recent Finding from Philadelphia,” Cornell Law Review 83: 1683–1770.Google Scholar

Baldus, D., Grosso, C., Woodworth, G., and Newell, R. (2012). “Racial Discrimination in the Administration of the Death Penalty: The Experience of the United States Armed Forces (1984–2005),” The Journal of Criminal Law and Criminology 101: 1227–1336.Google Scholar

Banks, R. Richard (2003). “Beyond Profiling: Race, Policing and the Drug War,” Stanford Law Review 56: 571–603.Google Scholar

Banner, Stuart (2002). The Death Penalty: An American History. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.Google Scholar

Bell, Monica C. (2016). “Situational Trust: How Disadvantaged Mothers Reconceive Legal Cynicism,” Law & Society Review 50: 314–347.Google Scholar

Bell, Monica C. (2017). “Police Reform and the Dismantling of Legal Estrangement,” Yale Law Journal 126: 2054–2150.Google Scholar

Berg, Mark T., Stewart, Eric A., Intravia, Jonathan, Warren, Patricia Y., and Simons, Ronald L. (2016). “Cynical Streets: Neighborhood Social Processes and Perceptions of Criminal Injustice,” Criminology 54: 520.Google Scholar

Berk, R., Li, A., and Hickman, L. (2005). “Statistical Difficulties in Determining the Role of Race in Capital Cases: A Re-Analysis of Data From the State of Maryland,” Journal of Quantitative Criminology 20: 365–390.Google Scholar

Binder, G. (2012). Felony Murder. Palo Alto, CA: Stanford University Press.Google Scholar

Black, Donald (1980). The Manners and Customs of the Police. New York: Academic Press.Google Scholar

Black, Donald (1976). The Behavior of Law. New York, NY: Academic Press.Google Scholar

Blume, John H., Eisenberg, Theodore, and Wells, Martin (2004). “Explaining Death Row’s Population and Racial Composition,” Journal of Empirical Legal Studies 1: 165–207.Google Scholar

Blume, John H., Johnson, Sheri, and Eisenberg, Theodore (1998). “Post-McCleskey Racial Claims in Capital Cases,” Cornell Law Review 83: 1771–1810.Google Scholar

Bobo, Lawrence D. and Johnson, Devon (2004). “A Taste for Punishment: Black and White Americans’ Views on the Death Penalty and the War on Drugs,” Du Bois Review 1: 151–180.Google Scholar

Borg, Marian J. and Parker, Karen F. (2001). “Mobilizing Law in Urban Areas: The Social Structure of Homicide Clearance Rates,” Law and Society Review 35: 435–466.Google Scholar

Bowers, W. (1983). “The Pervasiveness of Arbitrariness and Discrimination Under post-Furman Capital Statutes,” Journal of Criminal Law and Criminology 74:3: 1067–1100.Google Scholar

Bowers, W. J., Glenn L. Pierce, and John F. McDevitt (1984). Legal Homicide: Death as Punishment in America, 1864-1982. Boston, MA: Northeastern University Press.Google Scholar

Bowers, W., Sandys, M., and Brewer, T. (2004). “Crossing Racial Boundaries: A Closer Look at the Roots of Racial Bias in Capital Sentencing When the Defendant Is Black and the Victim Is White,” Depaul Law Review 53: 1497–1538.Google Scholar

Bradford, Ben, Milani, Jenna, and Jackson, Jonathan (2017). “Identity, Legitimacy and ‘Making Sense’ of Police Use of Force,” Policing: An International Journal, 40: 614–627.Google Scholar

Bright, Stephen (1995). “Discrimination, Death and Denial: The Tolerance of Racial Discrimination in Infliction of the Death Penalty,” Santa Clara Law Review 35: 433–483.Google Scholar

Bright, Stephen B. and Keenan, P. (1995). “Judges and the Politics of Death: Deciding Between the Bill of Rights and the Next Election in Capital Cases,” Boston University Law Review 75: 759–835.Google Scholar

Carr, Patrick J., Napolitano, Laura, and Keating, Jessica (2007). “We Never Call the Cops and Here Is Why: A Qualitative Examination of Legal Cynicism in Three Philadelphia Neighborhoods,” Criminology 45: 445–480.Google Scholar

Cassell, Paul A. and Fowles, Richard (2017). “Still Handcuffing the Cops? A Review of Fifty Years of Empirical Evidence of Miranda’s Harmful Effects on Law Enforcement,” Boston University Law Review 97: 687–849.Google Scholar

City of Chicago, Mayor’s Police Accountability Task Force (2016). Recommendations for Reform: Restoring Trust between the Chicago Police Department and the Communities They Serve. Available at https://chicagopatf.org/wp-content/uploads/2016/04/PATF_Final_Report_4_13_16-1.pdf.Google Scholar

Clampet-Lundquist, Susan, Carr, Patrick J. and Kefalas, Maria J. (2015). “The Sliding Scale of Snitching: A Qualitative Examination of Snitching in Three Philadelphia Communities,” Social Forces 30: 265–285.Google Scholar

Cohen, Jacqueline and Tita, George (1999). “Diffusion in Homicide: Exploring a General Method for Detecting Spatial Diffusion Processes,” Journal of Quantitative Criminology 15: 451–493.Google Scholar

Comey, James A. (2017). “‘Introduction’ to the Symposium,” Columbia Law Review 117: 1233–1234.Google Scholar

Congressional Globe, 39th Cong., 1st Sess. 2459 (May 8, 1866).Google Scholar

Cork, Daniel (1999). “Examining Space–Time Interaction in City-Level Homicide Data: Crack Markets and the Diffusion of Guns Among Youth,” Journal of Quantitative Criminology 15: 379–406.Google Scholar

Davies, Heather (2007). “Understanding Variations in Murder Clearance Rates: The Influence of the Political Environment,” Homicide Studies 11: 133–151.Google Scholar

Death Penalty Information Center (2018). The Death Penalty in 2017: Year End Report. Available at https://deathpenaltyinfo.org/YearEnd2017.Google Scholar

Desmond, Matthew, Papachristos, Andrew V., and Kirk, David S. (2016). “Police Violence and Citizen Crime Reporting in the Black Community,” American Sociological Review 81: 857–876.Google Scholar

Dorin, Dennis D. (1981). “Two Different Worlds: Criminologists, Justices, and Racial Discrimination in the Imposition of Capital Punishment in Rape Cases,” The Journal of Criminal Law & Criminology 72: 1667–1698.Google Scholar

Eisenberg, Theodore (2004–2005). “Death Sentence Rates and County Demographics: An Empirical Study,” Cornell Law Review 90: 347–370.Google Scholar

Fagan, Jeffrey and Geller, Amanda (2018). Race, Police and the Production of Capital Homicides. Presented at the Symposium in Honor of Professor Franklin E. Zimring. University of California School of Law, March 16, 2018.Google Scholar

Fagan, Jeffrey and Paternoster, Raymond (2019). “Social Context and Proportionality of Capital Punishment in Georgia after McKlesky.” Berkeley Journal of Criminal Law (forthcoming).Google Scholar

Fagan, Jeffrey and Richman, Daniel (2017). “Understanding Recent Spikes and Longer Trends in American Murders,” Columbia Law Review 117: 1235–1296.Google Scholar

Fagan, Jeffrey and Davies, Garth (2000). “Street Stops and Broken Windows: Terry, Race, and Disorder in New York City,” Fordham Urban Law Journal 28: 457–504.Google Scholar

Fagan, Jeffrey, Geller, Amanda, Davies, Garth, and West, Valerie (2010). “Street Stops and Broken Windows Revisited: The Demography and Logic of Proactive Policing in a Safe and Changing City,” in Race, Ethnicity, and Policing: New and Essential Readings (Rice, Stephen K. and White, Michael D., eds.), 309–348. New York: NYU Press.Google Scholar

Fagan, Jeffrey, Zimring, Franklin E., and Geller, Amanda (2006). “Capital Homicide and Capital Murder: Market Share and the Deterrent Effects of the Death Penalty,” Texas Law Review 84: 1803–1867.Google Scholar

Fagan, Jeffrey, Zimring, Franklin E., and Kim, June (1998). “Declining Homicide in New York: A Tale of Two Trends,” Journal of Criminal Law and Criminology 88: 1277–1324.Google Scholar

Fagan, Jeffrey, Wilkinson, Deanna L., and Davies, Garth (2007). “Social Contagion of Violence,” in The Cambridge Handbook of Violent Behavior (Daniel Flannery, A. Vazsonyi, and Ira Waldman, eds.), 688–723. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar

Fagan, Jeffrey, Tyler, Tom R. and Meares, Tracey L. (2016). “Street Stops and Police Legitimacy in New York,” in Comparing the Democratic Governance of Police Intelligence (Ross, Jacqueline E. and Delpeuch, Thierry, eds.), 203–231. Northampton MA: Edward Elgar.Google Scholar

Fischman, Joshua B. and Schanzenbach, Max M. (2012). “Racial Disparities Under the Federal Sentencing Guidelines: The Role of Judicial Discretion and Mandatory Minimums,” Journal of Empirical Legal Studies 9: 729–764.Google Scholar

Fox, James Alan and Fridel, Emma E. (2017). Supplementary Homicide Reports, Multiply-Imputed Database, 1976–2016 Cumulative File. Boston, MA: Northeastern University.Google Scholar

Gabbidon, Shaun L. (2015). Criminological Perspectives on Race and Crime. New York: Routledge.Google Scholar

Garland, David (2010). Peculiar Institution: America’s Death Penalty in an Age of Abolition. Cambridge MA: Belknap Press.Google Scholar

Gelman, Andrew and Hill, Jennifer. (2006). Data Analysis Using Regression and Multilevel/Hierarchical Models. New York: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar

Gelman, Andrew, Liebman, James S., West, Valerie, and Kiss, Alexander (2004). “A Broken System: The Persistent Patterns of Reversals of Death Sentences in the United States,” Journal of Empirical Legal Studies 1: 209–261.Google Scholar

Gottfredson, Michael and Hindelang, Michael J. (1979). “A Study of the Behavior of the Law,” American Sociological Review 44: 3–18.Google Scholar

Grogger, Jeffrey and Willis, Michael (2000). “The Emergence of Crack Cocaine and the Rise in Urban Crime Rates.” The Review of Economics and Statistics 82: 519–529.Google Scholar

Grosso, Catherine and O’Brien, Barbara (2012). ‘‘A Stubborn Legacy: The Overwhelming Importance of Race in Jury Selection in 173 Post-Batson North Carolina Capital Trials,” Iowa Law Review 91: 1531–1558.Google Scholar

Grosso, Catherine M., O’Brien, Barbara, Taylor, Abijah, and Woodworth, George (2014). “Race Discrimination and the Death Penalty: An Empirical and Legal Overview,” in America’s Experiment with Capital Punishment: Reflections on the Past, Present and Future of the Ultimate Penal Sanction, 3rd ed. (Acker, James R., Bohm, Robert M., and Lanier, Charles S., eds.), 525–577. Durham, NC: Carolina Academic Press.Google Scholar

Harris, David A. (1999). “The Stories, the Statistics, and the Law: Why Driving while Black Matters,” Minnesota Law Review 84: 265–326.Google Scholar

Hawkins, Darnell (1987). “Beyond Anomalies: Rethinking the Conflict Perspective on Race and Criminal Punishment,” Social Forces 65: 719–745.Google Scholar

Hedecker, Donald and Gibbons, Robert D. (1994). “A Random-Effects Ordinal Regression Model for Multilevel Analysis,” Biometric 50: 933–944.Google Scholar

Jacobs, David (1979). “Inequality and Police Strength: Conflict Theory and Coercive Control in Metropolitan Areas,” American Sociological Review 44: 913–925.Google Scholar

Jarvis, John P. and Regoeczi, Wendy C. (2007). “Murder Clearance Rates: Guest Editors’ Introduction,” Homicide Studies 11: 79–81.Google Scholar

Jeffries, John C. (1994 ). Justice Lewis F. Powell, Jr.: A Biography. New York: Scribner.Google Scholar

Jeffries, John C. (1994). A Change of Mind that Came Too Late, New York Times, June 23, 1994, at A23.Google Scholar

Johnson, Brian D. (2003). “Racial and Ethnic Disparities in Sentencing Departures Across Modes of Conviction,” Criminology 41:4 49–490.Google Scholar

Johnson, Bruce D., Williams, Terry, Dei, Kojo A., and Sanabria, Harry (1990). “Drug Abuse in the Inner City: Impact on Hard-Drug Users and the Community,” Crime and Justice 13: 9–67.Google Scholar

Jones, Nikki (2014). “‘The Regular Routine’: Proactive Policing and Adolescent Development Among Young, Poor Black Men,” New Directions For Child And Adolescent Development 143: 33–54.Google Scholar

Keel, Timothy, Jarvis, John P. and Muirhead, Yvonne E. (2009). “An Exploratory Analysis of Factors Affecting Homicide InvestigationsExamining the Dynamics of Murder Clearance Rates,” Homicide Studies 13: 50–68.Google Scholar

Kirk, David S. (2008). “The Neighborhood Context of Racial and Ethnic Disparities in Arrest,” Demography 45(1): 55–77.Google Scholar

Kirk, David S. and Matsuda, Mauri (2011). “Legal Cynicism, Collective Efficacy, and the Ecology of Arrest,” Criminology 49: 443–472.Google Scholar

Kirk, David S. and Papachristos, Andrew V. (2011). “Cultural Mechanisms and the Persistence of Neighborhood Violence,” American Journal of Sociology 116: 1190–1233.Google Scholar

Klein, Stephen., Berk, Richard A., and Hickman, Laura (2006). Race and the Decision to Seek the Death Penalty in Federal Cases. Santa Monica: RAND Corporation. Available at www.rand.org/.pubs/technical_reports/TR389.Google Scholar

Kramer, John H., Ulmer, Jeffrey, and Zajac, Gary (2017). Capital Punishment Decisions in Pennsylvania: 2000–2010: Implications for Racial, Ethnic and Other Disparate Impacts. Available at SSRN: https://ssrn.com/abstract=3148037.Google Scholar

Kubrin, Charis and Weitzer, Ronald (2003). “New Directions in Social Disorganization Theory,” Journal of Research in Crime and Delinquency 40: 374–402.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Kubrin, Charis E., Messner, Steven F., Deane, Glenn, McGeever, Kelly, and Stucky, Thomas D. (2010). “Proactive Policing and Robbery Rates Across US Cities,” Criminology 48: 57–97.Google Scholar

Larsen, Klaus and Merlo, Juan (2005). “Appropriate Assessment of Neighborhood Effects on Individual Health: Integrating Random and Fixed Effects in Multilevel Logistic Regression,” American Journal of Epidemiology 161: 81–88.Google Scholar

Lattimore, Pamela K., Trudeau, James, Riley, K. Jack, Leiter, Jordan, and Edwards, Steven (1997). Homicide in Eight U.S. Cities: Trends, Context, and Policy Implications. Washington, DC: National Institute of Justice.Google Scholar

Lee, Catherine Y. (2005). “The Value of Life: Multiple Regression and Event History Analyses of Homicide Clearance in Los Angeles County,” Journal of Criminal Justice 33: 527–534.Google Scholar

Liebman, James, Fagan, Jeffrey, and West, Valerie (2000). “A Broken System: Error Rates in Capital Cases, 1973–1995,” in Columbia Law School, Public Law Research Paper. New York, NY.Google Scholar

Liebman, James S., Fagan, Jeffrey, Gelman, Andrew, West, Valerie, Davies, Garth, and Kiss, Alexander (2002). “A Broken System, Part II: Why There Is So Much Error in Capital Cases, and What Can Be Done About It.” Columbia University Law School. Available at www2.law.columbia.edu/brokensystem2/Google Scholar

Litwin, Kenneth J. and Xu, Yili (2007). “The Dynamic Nature of Homicide Clearances: A Multilevel Model Comparison of Three Time Periods,” Homicide Studies 11: 94–114.Google Scholar

Leovy, Jill (2015). Ghettoside: A True Story of Murder in America. New York: Spiegel and Grau.Google Scholar

Lopez, Mark Hugo and Livingston, Gretchen (2009). Hispanics and the Criminal Justice System: Low Confidence, High Exposure. Pew Hispanic Research Center, at www.prisonlegalnews.org/media/publications/pew_hispanic_center_hispanics_and_the_criminal_justice_system_2009.pdf.Google Scholar

Lynch, Mona and Haney, Craig (2000). “Discrimination and Instructional Comprehension: Guided Discretion, Racial Bias, and the Death Penalty,” Law and Human Behavior, 24: 337–358.Google Scholar

Maltz, Michael (1999). “Bridging Gaps in Police Crime Data.” Bureau of Justice Statistics, Office of Justice Programs. Washington, DC: US Department of Justice.Google Scholar

Mancik, Ashley M., Parker, Karen F., and Williams, Kirk R. (2018). “Neighborhood Context and Homicide Clearance: Estimating the Effects of Collective Efficacy,” Homicide Studies 22.2: 188–213.Google Scholar

Martin, Michel (2014). Does Justice For Murder Victims Depend On Race, Geography? National Public Radio, January 13, 2014, at www.npr.org/2014/01/13/262082861/does-justice-for-murder-victims-depend-on-race-geography.Google Scholar

McClesky v. Kemp (1987). 481 U.S. 279Google Scholar

Mueller, Benjamin and Baker, Al (2016). Rift Between Officers and Residents as Killings Persist in South Bronx, N.Y. Times (December 31, 2016), http://nyti.ms/2jVye66.Google Scholar

Mustard, David (2001). “The Impact of Gun Laws on Police Deaths,” The Journal of Law and Economics 44(s2): 635–658.Google Scholar

Mustard, David B. (2003). “Racial, Ethnic, and Gender Disparities in Sentencing: Evidence from the US Federal Courts,” The Journal of Law and Economics 44: 285–314.Google Scholar

Natapoff, Alexandra (2009). Snitching: Criminal Informants and the Erosion of American Justice. New York: NYU Press.Google Scholar

O’Brien, Barbara, Grosso, Catherine M., Woodworth, George and Taylor, Abijah (2016). “Untangling the Role of Race in Capital Charging and Sentencing in North Carolina, 1990–2009,” North Carolina Law Review 94: 1997–2050.Google Scholar

O’Flaherty, Brendan and Sethi, Rajiv (2010). “Homicide in Black and White,” Journal of Urban Economics 68: 215–230.Google Scholar

Ornaghi, Arianna (2017). Civil Service Reform: Evidence from U.S. Police Departments, in Essays in Political Economy (Arianna Ornaghi, ed.), 13–65. Dissertation Submitted to the Department of Economics Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge MA.Google Scholar

Ousey, Graham and Lee, Matthew R. (2009). “To Know the Unknown: The Decline in Homicide Clearance Rates, 1980–2000,” Criminal Justice Review 35: 141–158.Google Scholar

Papachristos, Andrew V, and Kirk, David (2015). “Changing the Street Dynamic,” Criminology & Public Policy 14: 525–558.Google Scholar

Paternoster, Raymond (1983). “Race of Victim and Location of Crime: The Decision to Seek the Death Penalty in South Carolina,” Journal of Criminal Law & Criminology 74: 754–785.Google Scholar

Paternoster, Raymond and Brame, Robert (2008). “Reassessing Race Disparities in Maryland Capital Cases,” Criminology 46: 971–1008.Google Scholar

Paternoster, R., Brame, Robert, Bacon, Sarah, and Ditchfield, A. (2004). “Justice by Geography and Race: The Administration of the Death Penalty in Maryland, 1978–1999,” University of Maryland Law Journal of Race, Religion, Gender and Class 4: 1–97.Google Scholar

Paternoster, Raymond and Kazyaka, A.M. (1988). “The Administration of the Death Penalty in South Carolina: Experiences Over the First Few Years,” South Carolina Law Review 39: 245–414.Google Scholar

Peterson, Nick (2017). “Neighborhood Context and Unsolved Murders the Social Ecology of Homicide Investigations,” Policing & Society 27: 372–392.Google Scholar

Peterson, Ruth D., Krivo, Lauren J., and Hagan, John, eds. (2006). The Many Colors of Crime: Inequalities of Race, Ethnicity, and Crime in America. New York: NYU Press.Google Scholar

Pierce, Glenn L Radelet, Michael L., and Sharp, Susan (2017). “Race and Death Sentencing for Oklahoma Homicides Committed Between 1990 and 2012,” Journal of Criminal Law & Criminology 107: 733–756.Google Scholar

Puckett, Janice L. and Lundman, Richard J. (2003). “Factors Affecting Homicide Clearances: Multivariate Analysis of a Complete Conceptual Framework,” Journal of Research on Crime & Delinquency 40: 171–193.Google Scholar

Rabe-Hesketh, Sophia, Skrondal, Anders, and Pickles, Andrew (2004). “Generalized Multilevel Structural Equation Modeling,” Psychometrika 69: 167–190.Google Scholar

Rankin, Bill, Vogell, Heather, Jacobs, Sonji and Clarke, Megan, “A Matter of Life and Death: Death still Arbitrary,” Atlanta Journal Constitution, September 23, 2008, at www.myajc.com/news/state--regional/from-2007-matter-life-and-death-death-still-arbitrary/uQMik03eSLJ7VlI4wvUZnN/.Google Scholar

Raudenbush, Stephen W. and Bryk, Anthony S. (2002). Hierarchical Linear Models: Applications and Data Analysis Method (2nd ed.). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications.Google Scholar

Regoeczi, Wendy C., Jarvis, John, and Riedel, Marc (2008). “Clearing Murders: Is it About Time?” Journal of Research in Crime and Delinquency 45: 142–162.Google Scholar

Regoeczi, Wendy C. and Jarvis, John P. (2013). “Beyond the Social Production of Homicide Rates: Extending Social Disorganization Theory to Explain Homicide Case Outcomes,” Justice Quarterly 30: 983–1014.Google Scholar

Reidel, Marc (1976). “Discrimination in the Imposition of the Death Penalty: A Comparison of the Characteristics of Offenders Sentenced Pre-Furman and Post-Furman,” Temple Law Quarterly 49: 261–287.Google Scholar

Riedel, Marc (2008). “Homicide Arrest Clearances: A Review of the Literature,” Sociology Compass 2/4: 1145–1164, doi: 10.1111/j.1751-9020.2008.00130.xGoogle Scholar

Riedel, Marc and Jarvis, John (1999). “The Decline of Arrest Clearances for Criminal Homicide: Causes, Correlates, and Third Parties,” Criminal Justice Policy Review 9: 279–306.Google Scholar

Rios, Victor (2011). Punished: Policing the Lives of Black and Latino Boys. New York: NYU Press.Google Scholar

Risinger, D. Michael (2004). “Unsafe Verdicts: The Need for Reformed Standards for the Trial and Review of Factual Innocence Claims,” Houston Law Review 41: 1281–1318.Google Scholar

Roberts, Dorothy E. (2007). “Constructing a Criminal Justice System Free of Racial Bias: An Abolitionist Framework,” Columbia Human Rights Law Review 39: 262–285.Google Scholar

Roberts, Aki (2015). “Adjusting Rates of Homicide Clearance by Arrest for Investigation Difficulty: Modeling Incident- and Jurisdiction-Level Obstacles,” Homicide Studies 19(3): 273–300.Google Scholar

Roth, Randolph (2012). American Homicide. Cambridge MA: Harvard University Press.Google Scholar

Rozema, Kyle and Schanzenbach, Max M. (2016). “Good Cop, Bad Cop: An Analysis of Chicago Civilian Allegations of Police Misconduct.” Working Paper: University of Chicago. Available at: https://dx.doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.2866696.Google Scholar

Sampson, Robert J. (1986). “Crime in Cities: The Effects of Formal and Informal Social Control,” Crime and Justice 8: 271–311.Google Scholar

Sampson, Robert J. and Bartusch, Dawn Jeglum (1998). “Legal Cynicism and (Subcultural?) Tolerance of Deviance: The Neighborhood Context of Racial Differences,” Law and Society Review 32: 777–804.Google Scholar

Sampson, Robert J. and Wilson, William Julius (1995). “Toward a Theory of Race, Crime, and Urban Inequality,” in Crime and Inequality (Hagan, John and Peterson, Ruth D, eds.), 37–56. Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press.Google Scholar

Simon, Jonathan, and Christine Spaulding (1999). “Tokens of Our Esteem: Aggravating Factors in the Era of Deregulated Death Penalties,” in The Killing State: Capital Punishment, Law, Politics and Culture (Austin Sarat, ed.), 81–111.Google Scholar

Starr, Sonja B. and Rehavi, M. Marit (2013). “Mandatory Sentencing and Racial Disparity: Assessing the Role of Prosecutors and the Effects of Booker,” Yale Law Journal 123: 2–80.Google Scholar

Stevenson, Bryan A. and Friedman, Ruth E. (1994). “Deliberate Indifference: Judicial Tolerance of Racial Bias in Criminal Justice,” Wash. & Lee Law Review 51: 509–527.Google Scholar

Stewart, Eric A., Baumer, Eric P., Brunson, Rod K., and Simons, Ronald L. (2009). “Neighborhood Racial Context and Perceptions of Police-Based Racial Discrimination Among Black Youth,” Criminology 47: 847–887.Google Scholar

Steiker, Carol and Steiker, Jordan (2016). Courting Death: The Supreme Court and Capital Punishment. Cambridge, MA: Harvard Univ. Press.Google Scholar

Stewart, Eric A., Baumer, Eric P., Brunson, Rod K., and Simons, Ronald L. (2009). “Neighborhood Racial Context and Perceptions of Police-Based Racial Discrimination Among Black Youth,” Criminology 47: 847–887.Google Scholar

Tabak, Ronald J. (1990). “Is Racism Irrelevant? Or Should the Fairness in Death Sentencing Act be Enacted to Substantially Diminish Racial Discrimination in Capital Sentencing?” NYU Review of Law and Social Change 18: 777–805.Google Scholar

Tabak, Ronald J. (2010). “The Continuing Role of Rae in Capital Cases, Notwithstanding President Obama’s Election,” Northern Kentucky Law Review 37: 243–272.Google Scholar

Thaxton, Sherod (2018). “Disentangling Disparity: Exploring Racially Disparate Effect and Treatment in Capital Charging,” American Criminal Law Review 45: 95–166.Google Scholar

Thompson, Anthony (1999). “Stopping the Usual Suspects: Race and the Fourth Amendment,” New York University Law Review 74: 956–1013.Google Scholar

Trinkner, Rick, and Tyler, Tom R. (2016). “Legal Socialization: Coercion Versus Consent in an Era of Mistrust,” Annual Review of Law and Social Science 12: 417-439.Google Scholar

Tyler, Tom R. and Trinkner, Rick (2018). Why Children Follow Rules: Legal Socialization and the Development of Legitimacy. New York: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar

Tyler, Tom R. and Fagan, Jeffrey (2008). “Legitimacy and Cooperation: Why do People Help the Police Fight Crime in their Communities?” Ohio State Journal of Criminal Law 6: 173–229.Google Scholar

Tyler, Tom R., Fagan, Jeffrey, and Geller, Amanda (2014). “Street Stops and Police Legitimacy: Teachable Moments in Young Urban Men’s Legal Socialization,” Journal of Empirical Legal Studies 11: 751–785.Google Scholar

Tyler, Tom R., Goff, Phillip Atiba, and MacCoun, Robert J. (2015). “The Impact of Psychological Science on Policing in the United States: Procedural Justice, Legitimacy, and Effective Law Enforcement,” Psychological Science in the Public Interest 16: 75–109.Google Scholar

U.S. Government Accounting Office (1990). Death Penalty Sentencing: Research Indicates Pattern Disparities (Report to Senate and House Committee on the Judiciary, 101st Congress, 2d). Washington, DC: US Government Accounting Office.Google Scholar

Warden, Rob and Lennard, Daniel (2018). “Death in America under Color of Law: Our Long, Inglorius Experience with Capital Punishment,” Northwestern Journal of Law and Social Policy 13: 194–306.Google Scholar

Weisburd, David and Majmundar, Malay (2017). Proactive Policing: Effects on Crime and Communities. Washington, DC: National Academy of Sciences.Google Scholar

Weisburd, David, Groff, Elizabeth R., and Yang, Sue-Ming (2014). “Understanding and Controlling Hot Spots of Crime: The Importance of Formal and Informal Social Controls,” Prevention Science 15: 31–43.Google Scholar

Weiser, Benjamin and Baker, Al (2016). A Mother Is Shot Dead on a Playground, and a Sea of Witnesses Goes Silent. New York Times, October 7, 2016. https://nyti.ms/2k82BWGGoogle Scholar

Weitzer, Ronald and Tuch, Steven A. (2006). Race and Policing in America: Conflict and Reform. New York: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar

Wellford, C. and Cronin, J. (1999). “An Analysis of Variables Affecting the Clearance of Homicides: A Multistate Study.” Washington, DC: Justice Research and Statistics Association.Google Scholar

Western, Bruce (2006). Punishment and Inequality in America. New York: Russell Sage Foundation Press.Google Scholar

Wolfgang, Marvin E., Kelly, Arlene, and Nolde, Hans C. (1962). “Comparison of the Executed and the Commuted Among Admissions to Death Row,” The Journal of Criminal Law, Criminology, and Police Science 53: 301–311.Google Scholar

Wolfgang, M. and Reidel, M. (1973). “Race, Judicial Discretion, and the Death Penalty,” Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science 407: 119–133.Google Scholar

Wolfgang, M. and Reidel, M. (1975). “Rape, Race, and the Death Penalty in Georgia,” American Journal of Orthopsychiatry 45: 658–688.Google Scholar

Zimring, Franklin E. (2004). Contradictions of American Capital Punishment. New York: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar

Zimring, Franklin E. and Hawkins, Gordon (1997 ). Crime is Not the Problem: Lethal Violence in America. New York: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar

Ashmus v. Wong, U.S. District Court, N.D. CA. (93-CV-00594) (THE) (2010)Google Scholar

Furman v. Georgia, 408 U.S. 238 (1972)Google Scholar

Gregg v. Georgia, 428 U.S. 153 (1976)Google Scholar

McCleskey v. Kemp. 481 U.S. 279 (1987)Google Scholar

Ashmus v. Wong, U.S. District Court, N.D. CA. (93-CV-00594) (THE) (2010)Google Scholar

Furman v. Georgia, 408 U.S. 238 (1972)Google Scholar

Gregg v. Georgia, 428 U.S. 153 (1976)Google Scholar

McCleskey v. Kemp. 481 U.S. 279 (1987)Google Scholar

Ashmus v. Wong, U.S. District Court, N.D. CA. (93-CV-00594) (THE) (2010)Google Scholar

Furman v. Georgia, 408 U.S. 238 (1972)Google Scholar

Gregg v. Georgia, 428 U.S. 153 (1976)Google Scholar

McCleskey v. Kemp. 481 U.S. 279 (1987)Google Scholar