Lexical Tone

doi:10.1017/9781108644198.008

7 - Lexical Tone

from Section II - Prosodic Production

Published online by Cambridge University Press: 11 November 2021

Albert Lee and

Peggy Mok

Edited by

Rachael-Anne Knight and

Jane Setter

Show author details

Rachael-Anne Knight: Affiliation:
City, University of London
Jane Setter: Affiliation:
University of Reading

Book contents

Get access

Summary

This chapter surveys issues related to the production of tone in the world’s languages. Here the term ‘tone’ refers to the localised (within-syllable) use of fundamental frequency that contrasts lexical meanings (thus excluding pitch accent and stress languages). A comprehensive review of tonal phonetics is presented covering the acoustic correlates of tone, contextual tonal variation, methods used in tone production research, as well as recent research topics in tonal phonetics. We offer suggestions for teaching and learning of tone as a phonetics topic and the chapter concludes with suggestions for future directions for tone production research.

Keywords

contextual tonal variation microprosody tone tone sandhi tone merger

Type: Chapter
Information: The Cambridge Handbook of Phonetics , pp. 185 - 208

DOI: https://doi.org/10.1017/9781108644198.008 [Opens in a new window]

Publisher: Cambridge University Press

Print publication year: 2021

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

7.6 References

Abberton, E. R. M. & Fourcin, A. J. (1997). Electrolaryngography. In Ball, M. J. & Code, C., eds., Instrumental Clinical Phonetics. London: Whurr, pp. 119–48.Google Scholar

Abramson, A. S., Luangthongkum, T. & Nye, P. W. (2004). Voice register in Suai (Kuai): An analysis of perceptual and acoustic data. Phonetica, 61, 147–71.Google Scholar PubMed

Alzaidi, M. S., Xu, Y. & Xu, A. (2019). Prosodic encoding of focus in Hijazi Arabic. Speech Communication, 106, 127–49.CrossRef Google Scholar

Arantes, P. (2015). Time-normalization of fundamental frequency contours: A hands-on tutorial. In Meireles, A. R., ed., Courses on Speech Prosody. Newcastle upon Tyne, UK: Cambridge Scholars Publishing, pp. 98–123.Google Scholar

Archangeli, D. B., Yip, J. C.-K., Qin, L. & Lee, A. (2017). Phonological and phonetic properties of nasal substitution in Sasak and Javanese. Laboratory Phonology, 8(21), 1–27.CrossRef Google Scholar

Bates, D. M., Mächler, M., Bolker, B. M. & Walker, S. C. (2015). Fitting linear mixed-effects models using lme4. Journal of Statistical Software, 67(1), 1–48.CrossRef Google Scholar

Bauer, R. S., Cheung, K. H. & Cheung, P. M. (2003). Variation and merger of the rising tones in Hong Kong Cantonese. Language Variation and Change, 15(2), 211–25.Google Scholar

Bidelman, G. M. & Krishnan, A. (2010). Effects of reverberation on brainstem representation of speech in musicians and non-musicians. Brain Research, 1335, 112–25.Google Scholar

Bidelman, G. M., Gandour, J. T. & Krishnan, A. (2011). Musicians and tone-language speakers share enhanced brainstem encoding but not perceptual benefits for musical pitch. Brain and Cognition, 77, 1–10.Google Scholar

Brunelle, M. (2009). Tone perception in Northern and Southern Vietnamese. Journal of Phonetics, 37, 79–96.CrossRef Google Scholar

Brunelle, M. & Kirby, J. P. (2016). Tone and phonation in Southeast Asian languages. Linguistics and Language Compass, 10(4), 191–207.Google Scholar

Brunelle, M., Nguyễn, D. D. & Nguyễn, K. H. (2010). A laryngographic and laryngoscopic study of Northern Vietnamese tones. Phonetica, 67(3), 147–69.Google Scholar

Cao, J. & Maddieson, I. (1992). An exploration of phonation types in Wu dialects of Chinese. Journal of Phonetics, 20, 77–92.Google Scholar

Chao, Y.-R. (1980). A system of tone letters. Fangyan [方言], (2), 81–3.Google Scholar

Chen, M. Y. (2000). Tone Sandhi: Patterns across Chinese Dialects. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar

Chen, S., Wiltshire, C. R. & Li, B. (2017a). Statistical modeling of Mandarin tone sandhi: Neutralization of underlying pitch targets. International Journal of Social, Behavioral, Educational, Economic, Business and Industrial Engineering, 11(5), 1119–24.Google Scholar

Chen, S., Zhang, C., McCollum, A. G. & Wayland, R. P. (2017b). Statistical modelling of phonetic and phonologised perturbation effects in tonal and non-tonal languages. Speech Communication, 88, 17–38.Google Scholar

Chen, Y. & Xu, Y. (2006). Production of weak elements in speech: Evidence from f₀ patterns of neutral tone in Standard Chinese. Phonetica, 63(1), 47–75.CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

Cheng, C., Xu, Y. & Gubian, M. (2010). Exploring the mechanism of tonal contraction in Taiwan Mandarin. In Proceedings of INTERSPEECH 2010, Makuhari, Japan, pp. 2010–13.CrossRef Google Scholar

Cheng, C., Chen, J.-Y. & Gubian, M. (2013). Are Mandarin sandhi Tone 3 and Tone 2 the same or different? The results of Functional Data Analysis. In Proceedings of the 27th Pacific Asia Conference on Language, Information, and Computation (PACLIC-27), Taipei, pp. 296–301.Google Scholar

Collier, R. (1975). Physiological correlates of intonation patterns. Journal of the Acoustical Society of America, 58(1), 249–56.Google Scholar

Colton, R. H. & Conture, E. G. (1990). Problems and pitfalls of electroglottography. Journal of Voice, 4(1), 10–24.CrossRef Google Scholar

Connell, B. (2002). Tone languages and the universality of intrinsic f₀: Evidence from Africa. Journal of Phonetics, 30(1), 101–29.Google Scholar

Connell, B. (2011). Downstep. In van Oostendorp, M., Ewen, C. J., Hume, E. & Rice, K. D., eds., The Blackwell Companion to Phonology. Malden, MA: Wiley-Blackwell, pp. 824–47.Google Scholar

Connell, B. & Ladd, D. R. (1990). Aspects of pitch realisation in Yoruba. Phonology, 7(1), 1–29.CrossRef Google Scholar

Cooper, A. & Wang, Y. (2013). Effects of tone training on Cantonese tone-word learning. Journal of the Acoustical Society of America, 134(2), EL133–EL139.Google Scholar

Crystal, D. (2008). A Dictionary of Linguistics and Phonetics, 6th ed. Malden, MA: Blackwell Publishing.Google Scholar

Curran, P. J., Obeidat, K. & Losardo, D. (2010). Twelve frequently asked questions about growth curve modeling. Journal of Cognition and Development, 11(2), 121–36.Google Scholar

Davidson, L. S. (2006). Comparing tongue shapes from ultrasound imaging using smoothing spline analysis of variance. Journal of the Acoustical Society of America, 120(1), 407–15.Google Scholar

Deutsch, D., Henthorn, T., Marvin, E. & Xu, H. (2006). Absolute pitch among American and Chinese conservatory students: Prevalence differences, and evidence for a speech-related critical period. Journal of the Acoustical Society of America, 119(2), 719–22.Google Scholar

Diehl, R. L. & Kluender, K. R. (1989). On the objects of speech perception. Ecological Psychology, 1(2), 121–44.CrossRef Google Scholar

Docherty, G. J., González Ochoa, S. D. & Mitchell, N. (2015).Static vs. dynamic perspectives on the realization of vowel nuclei in West Australian English. In Proceedings of the 18th International Congress of Phonetic Sciences (ICPhS 2015), Glasgow, Scotland.Google Scholar

Esposito, C. M. (2012). An acoustic and electroglottographic study of White Hmong tone and phonation. Journal of Phonetics, 40(3), 466–76.CrossRef Google Scholar

Faaborg-Andersen, K. & Buchthal, F. (1956). Action potentials from internal laryngeal muscles during phonation. Nature, 177, 340–1.Google Scholar

Franich, K. (2015). The effect of cognitive load on tonal coarticulation. In Proceedings of the 18th International Congress of Phonetic Sciences (ICPhS 2015), Glasgow, Scotland.Google Scholar

Fujisaki, H. & Hirose, K. (1984). Analysis of voice fundamental frequency contours for declarative sentences of Japanese. Journal of the Acoustical Society of Japan [日本音響学会誌], 5(4), 233–42.Google Scholar

Fujisaki, H., Wang, C., Ohno, S. & Gu, W. (2005). Analysis and synthesis of fundamental frequency contours of Standard Chinese using the Command-Response Model. Speech Communication, 47(1–2), 59–70.CrossRef Google Scholar

Gandour, J. T. (1977). On the interaction between tone and vowel length: Evidence from Thai dialects. Phonetica, 34, 54–65.Google Scholar

Gandour, J. T., Potisuk, S. & Dechongkit, S. (1994). Tonal coarticulation in Thai. Journal of Phonetics, 22, 477–92.Google Scholar

Gick, B. W. (2002). The use of ultrasound for linguistic phonetic fieldwork. Journal of the International Phonetic Association, 32(2), 113–21.Google Scholar

Gordon, M. K. & Ladefoged, P. N. (2001). Phonation types: A cross-linguistic overview. Journal of Phonetics, 29, 383–406.Google Scholar

Gu, C. (2014). Smoothing spline ANOVA models: R package gss. Journal of Statistical Software, 58(5), 1–25.CrossRef Google Scholar

Gu, W. & Lee, T. (2009). Effects of tone and emphatic focus on f₀ contours of Cantonese speech: A comparison with Standard Chinese. Chinese Journal of Phonetics, 2, 133–47.Google Scholar

Gu, W., Hirose, K. & Fujisaki, H. (2007). Analysis of tones in Cantonese speech based on the Command-Response Model. Phonetica, 64(1), 29–62.Google Scholar

Gubian, M., Torreira, F. & Boves, L. (2015). Using Functional Data Analysis for investigating multidimensional dynamic phonetic contrasts. Journal of Phonetics, 49, 16–40.Google Scholar

Gussenhoven, C. H. M. (2004). The Phonology of Tone and Intonation. New York: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar

Hallé, P. A. (1994). Evidence for tone-specific activity of the sternohyoid muscle in Modern Standard Chinese. Language and Speech, 37(2), 103–24.Google Scholar

’t Hart, J., Collier, R. & Cohen, A. (1990). A Perceptual Study of Intonation: An Experimental-Phonetic Approach to Speech Melody. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar

Herbst, C. T. & Ternström, S. (2006). A comparison of different methods to measure the EGG contact quotient. Logopedics Phoniatrics Vocology, 31, 126–38.CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

Herman, R., Beckman, M. E. & Honda, K. (1996). Subglottal pressure and final lowering in English. In Proceedings of the 4th International Conference on Spoken Language Processing (ICSLP 1996), Philadelphia, PA, pp. 145–8.Google Scholar

Hombert, J.-M. (1977a). Consonant types, vowel height and tone in Yoruba. Studies in African Linguistics, 8(2), 173–90.Google Scholar

Hombert, J.-M. (1977b). Development of tones from vowel height? Journal of Phonetics, 5, 9–16.Google Scholar

Honda, K. (1995). Laryngeal and extra-laryngeal mechanisms of f₀ control. In Bell-Berti, F. & Raphael, L. J., eds., Producing Speech: Contemporary Issues. New York: American Institute of Physics, pp. 215–32.Google Scholar

Honda, K., Hirai, H., Masaki, S. & Shimada, Y. (1999). Role of vertical larynx movement and cervical lordosis in f₀ control. Language and Speech, 42(4), 401–11.Google Scholar

Huckvale, M. A. (2016). Using web audio to deliver interactive speech tools in the browser. Phonetician, 111, 70–85.Google Scholar

Huckvale, M. A., Brookes, D. M., Dworkin, L. T., Johnson, M. E., Pearce, D. J. & Whitaker, L. (1987). The SPAR speech filing system. In European Conference on Speech Technology, Edinburgh, pp. 1305–8.Google Scholar

Hyman, L. M. & Schuh, R. G. (1974). Universals of tone rules: Evidence from West Africa. Linguistic Inquiry, 5(1), 81–115.Google Scholar

Kaisse, E. M. (2006). Sandhi. In Brown, K., ed., Encyclopedia of Language and Linguistics, 2nd ed. Oxford: Elsevier, pp. 740–1.Google Scholar

Kirby, J. P. (2011). Illustrations of the IPA: Vietnamese (Hanoi). Journal of the International Phonetic Association, 41(3), 381–92.Google Scholar

Kirby, J. P. & Ladd, D. R. (2016a). Effects of obstruent voicing on vowel f₀: Evidence from ‘true voicing’ languages. Journal of the Acoustical Society of America, 140(4), 2400–11.Google Scholar

Kirby, J. P. & Ladd, D. R. (2016b). Tone–melody correspondence in Vietnamese popular song. In Proceedings of the 5th International Symposium on Tonal Aspects of Languages (TAL 2016), Buffalo, NY, pp. 1–4.Google Scholar

Kong, Q. (1987). Influence of tones upon vowel duration in Cantonese. Language and Speech, 30(4), 387–400.Google Scholar

Krifka, M. (2008). Basic notions of information structure. Acta Linguistica Hungarica, 55(3), 243–76.Google Scholar

Kuang, J. (2013). The tonal space of contrastive five level tones. Phonetica, 70(1–2), 1–23.CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

Kwon, K.-K. (2003). Prosodic change from tone to vowel length in Korean. In Fikkert, J. P. M. & Jacobs, H., eds., Development in Prosodic Systems. Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter, pp. 67–89.Google Scholar

Laniran, Y. O. (1992). Intonation in Tone Languages: The Phonetic Implementation of Tones in Yoruba. PhD thesis, Cornell University.Google Scholar

Laniran, Y. O. & Clements, G. N. (2003). Downstep and high raising: Interacting factors in Yoruba tone production. Journal of Phonetics, 31(2), 203–50.Google Scholar

Laniran, Y. O. & Gerfen, C. (1997). High raising, downstep and downdrift in Igbo. Paper presented at the 71st Annual Meeting of the Linguistic Society of America, Chicago, IL.Google Scholar

Law, S.-P., Fung, S. Y. R. & Kung, C. (2013). An ERP study of good production vis-à-vis poor perception of tones in Cantonese: Implications for top-down speech processing. PLOS ONE, 8(e54396), 1–9.Google Scholar

Lee-Kim, S.-I. (2014). Revisiting Mandarin ‘apical vowels’: An articulatory and acoustic study. Journal of the International Phonetic Association, 44(3), 261–82.Google Scholar

Lee, A. & Xu, Y. (2016). Effect of speech rate on pre-low raising in Cantonese. In Proceedings of the 5th International Symposium on Tonal Aspects of Languages (TAL 2016), Buffalo, NY, pp. 75–9.Google Scholar

Lee, A., Prom-on, S. & Xu, Y. (2017). Pre-low raising in Japanese pitch accent. Phonetica, 74(4), 231–46.CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

Lee, Y.-C., Wang, T. & Liberman, M. Y. (2016). Production and perception of tone 3 focus in Mandarin Chinese. Frontiers in Psychology, 7(1058), 1–13.Google Scholar

Li, Y., Tao, J., Lai, W. & Xu, X. (2017). Quantitative intonation modeling of interrogative sentences for Mandarin speech synthesis. Speech Communication, 89, 92–102.Google Scholar

List, G. (1961). Speech melody and song melody in Central Thailand. Ethnomusicology, 5(1), 16–32.Google Scholar

Liu, F. (1925). Étude expérimentale sur les tons du chinois. Paris: Société d’édition Les Belles Lettres.Google Scholar

Liu, F., Jiang, C., Thompson, W. F., Xu, Y., Yang, Y. & Stewart, L. (2012). The mechanism of speech processing in congenital amusia: Evidence from Mandarin speakers. PLOS ONE, 7(e30374), 1–11.Google Scholar

Liu, M., Chen, Y. & Schiller, N. O. (2016). Online processing of tone and intonation in Mandarin: Evidence from ERPs. Neuropsychologia, 91, 307–17.Google Scholar

Liu, S. & Samuel, A. G. (2004). Perception of Mandarin lexical tones when f₀ information is neutralized. Language and Speech, 47(2), 109–38.CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

Loucks, T. M. J., Poletto, C. J., Saxon, K. G. & Ludlow, C. L. (2005). Laryngeal muscle responses to mechanical displacement of the thyroid cartilage in humans. Journal of Applied Physiology, 99, 922–30.Google Scholar

Maddieson, I. (2005). Tone. In Haspelmath, M., Dryer, M. S., Gil, D. & Comrie, B., eds., The World Atlas of Language Structures. Oxford: Oxford University Press, pp. 58–61.Google Scholar

Miller, A. L. & Finch, K. B. (2011). Corrected high-frame rate anchored ultrasound with software alignment. Journal of Speech, Language, and Hearing Research, 54, 471–86.Google Scholar

Mirman, D. (2014). Growth Curve Analysis and Visualization Using R, Boca Raton, FL: CRC Press.Google Scholar

Moisik, S. R., Lin, H. & Esling, J. H. (2014). A study of laryngeal gestures in Mandarin citation tones using simultaneous laryngoscopy and laryngeal ultrasound (SLLUS). Journal of the International Phonetic Association, 44(1), 21–58.Google Scholar

Mok, P. K. P. & Zuo, D. (2012). The separation between music and speech: Evidence from the perception of Cantonese tones. Journal of the Acoustical Society of America, 132(4), 2711–20.Google Scholar

Mok, P. K. P., Zuo, D. & Wong, W. Y. P. (2013). Production and perception of a sound change in progress: Tone merging in Hong Kong Cantonese. Language Variation and Change, 25(3), 341–70.Google Scholar

Myers, J. T. & Tsay, J. S.-C. (2008). Neutralization in Taiwan Southern Min tone sandhi. In Hsiao, Y. E., Hsu, H.-C., Wee, L.-H. & Ho, D.-A., eds., Interfaces in Chinese Phonology: Festschrift in Honor of Matthew Y. Chen on his 70th birthday [漢語音韻介面：陳淵泉先生七秩壽慶論文集]. Taipei: Academia Sinica, p. 2411.Google Scholar

Ohala, J. J. (1978). Production of tone. In Fromkin, V. A., ed., Tone: A Linguistic Survey. New York: Academic Press, pp. 5–39.Google Scholar

Ohala, J. J. & Eukel, B. (1987). Explaining the intrinsic pitch of vowels. In Channon, R. & Shockey, L., eds., In Honor of Ilse Lehiste, Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter, pp. 207–15.Google Scholar

Ohde, R. N. (1984). Fundamental frequency as an acoustic correlate of stop consonant voicing. Journal of the Acoustical Society of America, 75(1), 224–30.Google Scholar

Payne, J. K., Higenbottam, T. W. & Guindi, G. M. (1980). A surface electrode for laryngeal electromyography. Journal of Neurology, Neurosurgery, and Psychiatry, 43, 853–4.Google Scholar

Peng, S.-H. (2000). Lexical versus ‘phonological’ representations of Mandarin sandhi tones. In Broe, M. B. & Pierrehumbert, J. B., eds., Papers in Laboratory Phonology V: Acquisition and the Lexicon. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, pp. 152–67.Google Scholar

Pierrehumbert, J. B. (1980). The Finnish possessive suffixes. Language, 56(3), 603–21.Google Scholar

Pike, K. L. (1948). Tone Languages. Ann Arbor, MI: University of Michigan Press.Google Scholar

Prom-on, S., Xu, Y. & Thipakorn, B. (2009). Modeling tone and intonation in Mandarin and English as a process of target approximation. Journal of the Acoustical Society of America, 125(1), 405–24.Google Scholar

Prom-on, S., Liu, F. & Xu, Y. (2012). Post-low bouncing in Mandarin Chinese: Acoustic analysis and computational modeling. Journal of the Acoustical Society of America, 132(1), 421–32.Google Scholar

Prom-on, S., Xu, Y., Gu, W., Arvaniti, A., Nam, H. & Whalen, D. H. (2016). The Common Prosody Platform (CPP): Where theories of prosody can be directly compared. In Proceedings of the 8th International Conference on Speech Prosody (SP2016), Boston, MA, pp. 1–5.Google Scholar

Ramsay, J. O. & Silverman, B. W. (2005). Functional Data Analysis, 2nd ed. New York: Springer.Google Scholar

Rialland, A. (1981). Le système tonal du gurma (langue gur de Haute-Volta). Journal of African Languages and Linguistics, 3, 39–64.CrossRef Google Scholar

Rialland, A. (2009). The African lax question prosody: Its realisation and geographical distribution. Lingua, 119(6), 928–49.Google Scholar

Sagart, L., Hallé, P. A., de Boysson-Bardies, B. & Arabia-Guidet, C. (1986). Tone production in Modern Standard Chinese: An electromyographic investigation. Cahiers de Linguistique – Asie Orientale, 15(2), 205–21.Google Scholar

Saitou, T., Unoki, M. & Akagi, M. (2005). Development of an f₀ control model based on f₀ dynamic characteristics for singing-voice synthesis. Speech Communication, 46(3–4), 405–17.Google Scholar

Sapir, S. (1989). The intrinsic pitch of vowels: Theoretical, physiological, and clinical considerations. Journal of Voice, 3(1), 44–51.Google Scholar

Schellenberg, M. H. (2009). Singing in a tone language: Shona. In Ojo, A. & Moshi, L., eds., Selected Proceedings of the 39th Annual Conference on African Linguistics: Linguistic Research and Languages in Africa, Somerville, MA: Cascadilla Proceedings Project, pp. 137–44.Google Scholar

Schellenberg, M. H. (2012). Does language determine music in tone languages? Ethnomusicology, 56(2), 266–78.Google Scholar

Shadle, C. H. (1985). Intrinsic fundamental frequency of vowels in sentence context. Journal of the Acoustical Society of America, 78(5), 1562–7.Google Scholar

Silverman, D. D., Blankenship, B., Kirk, P. & Ladefoged, P. N. (1995). Phonetic structures in Jalapa Mazatec. Anthropological Linguistics, 37(1), 70–88.Google Scholar

Snider, K. L. (1998). Phonetic realisation of downstep in Bimoba. Phonology, 15, 77–101.Google Scholar

Srisuwan, N., Phukpattaranont, P. & Limsakul, C. (2012). Feature selection for Thai tone classification based on surface EMG. Procedia Engineering, 32, 253–9.Google Scholar

Steele, S. A. (1986). Interaction of vowel f₀ and prosody. Phonetica, 43, 92–105.Google Scholar

Stepp, C. E. (2012). Surface electromyography for speech and swallowing systems: Measurement, analysis, and interpretation. Journal of Speech, Language, and Hearing Research, 55, 1232–47.Google Scholar

Talkin, D. (1995). A robust algorithm for pitch tracking (RAPT). In W. B. Kleijn and K. K. Paliwal, eds., Speech Coding and Synthesis. Amsterdam: Elsevier, pp. 495–518.Google Scholar

Titze, I. R., Baken, R. J., Bozeman, K. W., et al. (2015). Toward a consensus on symbolic notation of harmonics, resonances, and formants in vocalization. Journal of the Acoustical Society of America, 137(5), 3005–7.Google Scholar

Tsanas, A., Zañartu, M., Little, M. A., Fox, C., Ramig, L. O. & Clifford, G. D. (2014). Robust fundamental frequency estimation in sustained vowels: Detailed algorithmic comparisons and information fusion with adaptive Kalman filtering. Journal of the Acoustical Society of America, 135(5), 2885–901.Google Scholar

Ullah, S. & Finch, C. F. (2013). Applications of functional data analysis: A systematic review. BMC Medical Research Methodology, 13(43), 1–12.Google Scholar

Vieira, M. N. (2015). Electroglottography. In Meireles, A. R., ed., Courses on Speech Prosody. Newcastle upon Tyne, UK: Cambridge Scholars Publishing, pp. 52–97.Google Scholar

Whalen, D. H. & Levitt, A. G. (1995). The universality of intrinsic f₀ of vowels. Journal of Phonetics, 27(2), 349–66.Google Scholar

Wong, P. C. M. & Diehl, R. L. (2002). How can the lyrics of a song in a tone language be understood. Psychology of Music, 30, 202–9.Google Scholar

Wong, P. C. M. & Diehl, R. L. (2003). Inter- and intratalker variation in Cantonese level tones. Journal of Speech, Language, and Hearing Research, 46, 413–22.Google Scholar

Wong, W. Y. P., Chan, M. K. M. & Beckman, M. E. (2005). An Autosegmental-Metrical analysis and prosodic annotation conventions for Cantonese. In Jun, S.-A., ed., Prosodic Typology: The Phonology of Intonation and Phrasing, Vol. C, New York: Oxford University Press, pp. 271–300.Google Scholar

Wu, W.-L. (2013). Cantonese Prosody: Sentence-Final Particles and Prosodic Focus. PhD thesis, University College London.Google Scholar

Xu, C. X. & Xu, Y. (2003). Effects of consonant aspiration on Mandarin tones. Journal of the International Phonetic Association, 33(2), 165–81.Google Scholar

Xu, Y. (1993). Contextual Tonal Variations in Mandarin. PhD thesis, University of Connecticut, Storrs, CT.Google Scholar

Xu, Y. (1997). Contextual tonal variations in Mandarin. Journal of Phonetics, 25(1), 61–83.Google Scholar

Xu, Y. (1999). Effects of tone and focus on the formation and alignment of f₀ contours. Journal of Phonetics, 27(1), 55–105.Google Scholar

Xu, Y. (2005). Speech melody as articulatorily implemented communicative functions. Speech Communication, 46(3–4), 220–51.Google Scholar

Xu, Y. (2013). ProsodyPro: A tool for large-scale systematic prosody analysis. In Proceedings of Tools and Resources for the Analysis of Speech Prosody (TRASP 2013), Aix-en-Provence, France, pp. 7–10.Google Scholar

Xu, Y. & Sun, X. (2002). Maximum speed of pitch change and how it may relate to speech. Journal of the Acoustical Society of America, 111(3), 1399–413.Google Scholar

Xu, Y. & Wang, Q. E. (2001). Pitch targets and their realization: Evidence from Mandarin Chinese. Speech Communication, 33(4), 319–37.Google Scholar

Xu, Y., Chen, S.-W. & Wang, B. (2012). Prosodic focus with and without post-focus compression: A typological divide within the same language family? Linguistic Review, 29(1), 131–47.Google Scholar

Yip, M. J. W. (2002). Tone. New York: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar

Yu, K. M. & Lam, H. W. (2014). The role of creaky voice in Cantonese tonal perception. Journal of the Acoustical Society of America, 136(3), 1320–33.Google Scholar

Yu, S., Lee, T. & Ng, M. L. (2016). Surface electromyographic activity of extrinsic laryngeal muscles in Cantonese tone production. Journal of Signal Processing Systems, 82(2), 287–94.Google Scholar

Yung, B. (1983). Creative process in Cantonese opera I: The role of linguistic tones. Ethnomusicology, 27(1), 29–47.Google Scholar

Zhang, J. (2004). The role of contrast-specific and language-specific phonetics in contour tone distribution. In Hayes, B. P., Kirchner, R. M. & Steriade, D., eds., Phonetically Based Phonology. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, pp. 157–90.Google Scholar

Zhu, X. & Wang, C. (2015). Tone. In Wang, W. S.-Y. & Sun, C., eds., The Oxford Handbook of Chinese Linguistics. New York: Oxford University Press, pp. 503–15.Google Scholar