Skip to main content Accessibility help
×
Hostname: page-component-78c5997874-s2hrs Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-11-03T05:27:34.824Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
This chapter is part of a book that is no longer available to purchase from Cambridge Core

34 - A Merging Theory of Expertise and Intelligence

from PART VI - GENERALIZABLE MECHANISMS MEDIATING EXPERTISE AND GENERAL ISSUES

John Horn
Affiliation:
Department of Psychology, University of Southern California
Hiromi Masunaga
Affiliation:
Department of Educational Psychology, Administration, and Counseling, California State University, Long Beach
K. Anders Ericsson
Affiliation:
Florida State University
Neil Charness
Affiliation:
Florida State University
Paul J. Feltovich
Affiliation:
University of West Florida
Robert R. Hoffman
Affiliation:
University of West Florida
Get access

Summary

Creations, new insights, and paradigm shifts emerge at junctures where different theories – different world views – meet, come in conflict, and are forced to accommodate. So it can be with a theory of expertise and a theory of human intelligence. Over the course of 20th-century research, the developments of these two “world views” have run along separately, rather like Leibnitz's clocks, each addressing much the same question – what are the major capabilities of the human and how do they come about – but neither speaking to the other. They have arrived at different conclusions, neither thoroughly correct, of course, but neither entirely wrong either. Now, we reason, if we put the two theories in newly-met dialog, we can drive off the odious irrelevancies of each in a distillation that captures the truthful essence of both – a new liquor: a theory that is more accurate than any that has gone before. That, immodestly, is what we present in what follows.

We deal with the question of how expertise fits within that part of human personality we describe with a theory of human intelligence. Thus, the larger perspective is that of personality – a theory that describes what people do and explains why they do it. The principal descriptive concept of this theory is behavioral trait, a characteristic that persistently distinguishes one individual from another despite variation in the circumstances in which individuals are found.

Type
Chapter
Information
Publisher: Cambridge University Press
Print publication year: 2006

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

Anderson, J. R. (1990). Cognitive psychology and its implications (3rd ed.). New York: W. H. Freeman.Google Scholar
Backman, L., Small, B. J., Wahlin, A., & Larsson, M. (2000). Cognitive functioning in very old age. In Craik, F. I. M. & Salthouse, T. A. (Eds.), The handbook of aging and cognition (2nd ed, pp. 499–558). Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum.Google Scholar
Bahrick, H. P. (1984). Semantic memory content in permastore: Fifty years of memory for Spanish learned in school. Journal of Experimental Psychology: General, 113, 1–29.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Bahrick, H. P., & Hall, L. K. (1991). Lifetime maintenance of high school mathematics content. Journal of Experimental Psychology: General, 120, 20–33.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Baltes, P. B. (1997). On the incomplete architecture of human ontogeny: Selection, optimization, and compensation as foundation of developmental theory. American Psychologist, 52, 366–380.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Barnett, S. M., & Koslowski, B. (2002). Adaptive expertise: Effects of type of experience and the level of theoretical understanding it generates. Thinking & Reasoning, 8(4), 237–267. Journal of Experimental Psychology: General, 120, 20–33.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Birren, J. E. (1974). Translations in gerontology – From lab to life: Psychology and speed of response. American psychologist, 29, 808–815.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Botwinick, J. (1977). Aging and intelligence. In Birren, J. E. & Schaie, K. W. (Eds.), Handbook of the psychology of aging (pp. 580–605). New York: Van Nostrand Reinhold.Google Scholar
Botwinick, J. (1978). Aging and behavior: A comprehensive integration of research findings. New York: Springer.Google Scholar
Bower, G. H. (1972). Mental imagery and associative learning. In Gregg, L. W. (Ed.), Cognition in learning and memory (pp. 213–228). New York: Wiley.Google Scholar
Bower, G. H. (1975). Cognitive psychology: An introduction. In Estes, W. K. (Ed.), Handbook of learning and cognitive processes, vol. 1. New York: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.Google Scholar
Bowlby, J. (1951). Maternal care and mental health. Bulletin of the World Health Organization, 3, 355–533.Google ScholarPubMed
Broadbent, D. E. (1966). The well-ordered mind. American Educational Research Journal, 3, 281–295.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Browne, M. W., & Cudeck, R. (1993). Alternative way of assessing model fit. In Bollen, K. A. & Long, J. S. (Eds.), Tesing structural equation modles (pp. 136–162). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.Google Scholar
Burgess, K. M., Marshall, P. J., Rubin, K. H., & Fox, N. A. (2003). Infant attachment and temperament as predictors of subsequent externalizing problems and cardiac physiology. Journal of Child Psychology & Psychiatry, 44, 819–831.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Carroll, J. B. (1993). Human cognitive abilities: A survey of factor-analytic studies. New York: Cambridge University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Cattell, R. B. (1971). Abilities: Their structure, growth and action. Boston: Houghton-Mifflin.Google Scholar
Cattell, R. B. (1979). Are culture-fair intelligence tests possible and necessary? Journal of Research and Development in Education, 12, 1–13.Google Scholar
Cavanaugh, J. C. (1997). Adult development and aging, 3rd ed. New York: ITP.Google Scholar
Charness, N. (1981a). Search in chess: Age and skill differences. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Perception and Performance, 7(2), 467–476.Google Scholar
Charness, N. (1981b). Visual short-term memory and aging in chess players. Journal of Gerontology, 36(5), 615–619.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Charness, N. (1991). Expertise in chess: The balance between knowledge and search. In Ericsson, K. A. & Smith, J. (Eds.), Toward a general theory of expertise (pp. 39–63). New York: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Charness, N., & Bosman, E. A. (1990). Expertise and aging: Life in the lab. In Hess, T. M. (Ed.), Aging and cognition: Knowledge organization and utilization (pp. 343–386). New York: Elsevier.Google Scholar
Charness, N., Krampe, R., & Mayr, U. (1996). The role of practice and coaching in entrepreneurial skill domains: An international comparison of life-span chess skill acquisition. In Ericsson, K. A. (Ed.), The road to excellence (pp. 51–80). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.Google Scholar
Christensen, H. (2001). What cognitive changes can be expected with normal ageing? Australian & New Zealand Journal of Psychiatry, 35(6), 768–775.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Colonia-Willner, R. (1998). Practical intelligence at work: Relationship between aging and cognitive efficiency among managers in a bank environment. Psychology & Aging, 13(1), 45–57.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Cooke, N. J., Atlas, R. S., Lane, D. M., & Berger, R. C. (1993). Role of high-level knowledge in memory for chess positions. American Journal of Psychology, 106, 321–351.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Craik, F. I. M. (1977). Age differences in human memory. In Birren, J. E. & Schaie, K. W. (Eds.), Handbook of the psychology of aging. New York: Van Nostrand Reinhold.Google Scholar
Craik, F. I. M. (2000). Age-related changes in human memory. In Park, D. C. & Schwarz, N. (Eds.), Cognitive aging: A primer (pp. 75–92). Philadelphia: Taylor & Francis.Google Scholar
Craik, F. I. M. & Byrd, M. (1982). Aging and cognitive deficits: The role of attentional resources. In Craik, F. I. M. & Trehub, S. (Eds.), Aging and cognitive processes (pp. 191–211). New York: Plenum.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Craik, F. I. M. & Trehub, S., Eds. (1982). Aging and cognitive processes. New York: Plenum.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Crook, J. A. (2002). How do expert mental health nurses make on-the-spot clinical decisions? A review of the literature. Journal of Psychiatric & Mental Health Nursing, 8(1), 1–6.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Deakin, J. M., & Cobley, S. (2003). A search for deliberate practice: an examination of the practice environments in figure skating and volleyball. In Starkes, J. and Ericsson, K. A. (Eds.), Expert performance in sport: Recent advances in research on sport expertise (pp. 115–135). Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics.Google Scholar
Groot, A. D. (1946). Het denken vun den schaker [Thought and choice in chess]. Amsterdam: North-Holland.Google Scholar
Groot, A. D. (1978). Thought and choice in chess. Oxford, England: Mouton.Google Scholar
Ericsson, K. A. (1996). The acquisition of expert performance. In Ericsson, K. A. (Ed.), The road to excellence (pp. 1–50). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.Google Scholar
Ericsson, K. A. (1997). Deliberate practice and the acquisition of expert performance: An overview. In Jorgensen, H. & Lehmann, A. C. (Eds.), Does practice make perfect?: Current theory and research on instrumental music practice (pp. 9–51). NMH-publikasjoner.Google Scholar
Ericsson, K. A. (1998). The scientific study of expert levels of performance: General implications for optimal learning and creativity. High Ability Studies, 9, 75–100.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Ericsson, K. A. (2000). How experts attain and maintain superior performance: Implications for the enhancement of skilled performance in older individuals. Journal of Aging and Physical Activity, 8, 346–352.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Ericsson, K. A. (2002). Attaining excellence through deliberate practice: Insights from the study of expert performance. In Ferrari, M. (Ed), The pursuit of excellence through education. The educational psychology series (pp. 21–55).Google Scholar
Ericsson, K. A. & Charness, N. (1994). Expert performance. American Psychologist, 49, 725–747.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Ericsson, K. A. & Delaney, P. F. (1998). Working memory and expert performance. In Logie, R. H. & Gilhooly, K. J. (Eds.), Working memory and thinking. Current issues in thinking & reasoning (pp. 93–114). Hove, England UK: Psychology Press/Erlbaum (UK) Taylor & Francis.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Ericsson, K. A. & Kintsch, W. (1995). Long-term working memory. Psychological Review, 105, 211–245.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Ericsson, K. A., Krampe, R. T., & Tesch-Romer, C. (1993). The role of deliberate practice in the acquisition of expert performance. Psychological Review, 100(3), 363–406.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Ericsson, K. A., & Lehmann, A. C. (1996). Expert and exceptional performance: Evidence of maximal adaptation to task constraints. Annual Review of Psychology, 47, 273–305.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Ericsson, K. A., & Staszewski, J. (1989). Skilled memory and expertise: Mechanisms of exceptional performance. In Klahr, D. & Kotovsky, K. (Eds.), Complex information processing (p. 235–268). Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.Google Scholar
Estes, W. K. (1974). Learning theory and intelligence. American Psychologist, 29, 740–749.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Fagan, J. F., & McGrath, S. K. (1981). Infant recognition memory and later intelligence. Intelligence, 5, 121–130.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Finkel, D., Reynold, C. A., McArdle, J. J., Gatz, M., & Pedersen, N. L. (2003). Latent growth curve analyses of accelerating decline in cognitive abilities in late adulthood. Developmental Psychology, 39(3), 535–550.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Fisk, J. E. & Sharp, C. (2002). Syllogistic reasoning and cognitive ageing. Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Experimental Psychology, 55A (4), 1273–1293.Google Scholar
Flangan, D. P., & Harrison, P. L. (Eds). (2005). Contemporary intellectual Assessment: Theories, tests, and issues(2nd ed). New York: Guilford Press.Google Scholar
Gathercole, S. E. (1994). The nature and uses of working memory. In Morris, P. & Gruneberg, M. (Eds.), Theoretical aspects of memory (pp. 50–78). London: Routledge.Google Scholar
Gobet, F., & Simon, H. A. (1996). Templates in chess memory: A mechanism for recalling several boards. Cognitive Psychology, 31, 1–40.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Harlow, H. F., & Suomi, S. J. (1970). Nature of love: Simplified. American Psychologist, 25, 161–168.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Harwood, E., & Naylor, G. F. K. (1971). Changes in the constitution of the WAIS intelligence pattern with advancing age. Australian Journal of Psychology, 23, 297–303.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hershey, D. A., Walsh, D. A., Read, S. J., & Chulef, A. S. (1990). The effects of expertise on financial problem solving: Evidence for goal-directed problem solving scripts. Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Performance, 46, 77–101.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Holding, D. H. (1985). The psychology of chess skill. Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.Google Scholar
Horn, J. L. (1968). Organization of abilities and the development of intelligence. Psychological Review, 75, 242–259.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Horn, J. L. (1972). The structure of intellect: Primary abilities. In Dreger, R. M. (Ed.), Multivariate personality research (pp. 451–511). Baton Rouge: Claitor Publishing.Google Scholar
Horn, J. L. (1975). Psychometric studies of aging and intelligence. In Gershon, S. & Raskin, A. (Eds.), Aging, Vol. 2, Genesis and treatment of psychologic disorders in the elderly (pp. 19–43). New York: Raven.Google Scholar
Horn, J. L. (1977). Human abilities: A review of research and theory in the early 1970's. Annual Review of Psychology, 27, 437–485.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Horn, J. L. (1982). The aging of human abilities. In Wolman, B. B. (Ed.), Handbook of developmental psychology (pp. 847–870). Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall.Google Scholar
Horn, J. L. (1985). Intellectual ability concepts. In Sternberg, R. J. (Ed.), Advances in the psychology of human intelligence, vol. 3 (pp. 35–77). Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.Google Scholar
Horn, J. L. (1989). Cognitive diversity: A framework for learning. In Ackerman, P. L., Sternberg, R. J., & Glaser, R. (Eds.), Learning and individual differences: Advances in theory and research (pp. 61–114). New York: Freeman.Google Scholar
Horn, J. L. (1991). Measurement of intellectual capabilities: A review of theory. In McGrew, K. S., Werder, J. K., & Woodcock, R. W. (Eds.), Woodcock-Johnson technical manual (pp. 197–246). Allen, TX: DLM.Google Scholar
Horn, J. L. (1997). A basis for research on age differences in cognitive capabilities. In McArdle, J. J., & Woodcock, R. (Eds.), Human cognitive abilities in theory and practice. Chicago, IL: Riverside.Google Scholar
Horn, J. L. (2002). Selections of evidence, misleading assumptions, and oversimplifications: the political message of The Bell Curve. In Fish, J. (Ed.). Race and Intelligence: Separating Science from Myth (pp. 297–325). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.Google Scholar
Horn, J. L. (in press). Understanding Human Intelligence: Where have we come since Spearman? In MacCallum, R. C. & Cudeck, R. (Eds.), One hundred years after Spearman. Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum.Google Scholar
Horn, J. L. & Cattell, R. B. (1967). Age differences in fluid and crystallized intelligence. Acta Psychologica, 26, 107–129.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Horn, J. L. & Donaldson, G. (1980). Cognitive development in adulthood. In Brim, O. G. & Kagan, J. (Eds.), Constancy and change in human development (pp. 445–529). Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.Google Scholar
Horn, J. L., Donaldson, G., & Engstrom, R. (1981). Apprehension, memory and fluid intelligence decline in adulthood. Research on Aging, 3, 33–84.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Horn, J. L. & Hofer, S. M. (1992). Major abilities and development in the adult period. In Sternberg, R. J. & Berg, C. A. (Eds.), Intellectual development (pp. 44–99). New York: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Horn, J. L. & Noll, J. (1997). Human cognitive capabilities: Gf-Gc theory. In Flanagan, Genshaft, & Harrison, (Eds.), Contemporary intellectual assessment (pp. 53–91). New York: Guilford Press.Google Scholar
Jensen, A. R. (1998). The g Factor: The Science of Mental Ability. London: Praeger.Google Scholar
Kasai, K. (1986). Tgo de atama ga yoku nara hon [Becoming smart with Go]. Tokyo, Japan: Shikai.
Kaufman, A. S. (1990). Assessing adolescent and adult intelligence. Boston: Allyn and Bacon.Google Scholar
Kausler, D. H. (1990). Experimental psychology, cognition, and human aging. New York: Springer.Google Scholar
Koltanowski, G. (1985). In the dark. Coraopolis, PA: Chess Enterprises.Google Scholar
Kramer, A. F., & Willis, S. L. (2002). Enhancing the cognitive vitality of older adults. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 11, 173–177.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Krampe, R. T. (2002). Aging, expertise and fine motor development. Neuroscience & Biobehavioral Review, 26, 769–776.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Krampe, R. T., & Ericsson, K. A. (1996). Maintaining excellence: Deliberate practice and elite performance in young and older pianists. Journal of Experimental Psychology: General, 125(4), 331–359.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Lane, C. J., & Zelinski, E. M. (2003). Longitudinal hierarchical linear models of the Memory Functioning Questionnaire. Psychology and Aging, 18, 38–53.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Lighten, J. P., & Sternberg, R. J. (2002). Thinking about reasoning: Is knowledge power? Korean Journal of Thinking & Problem Solving, 12(1), 5–25.Google Scholar
Madden, D. J., & Nebes, R. D. (1980). Aging and the development of automaticity in visual search. Developmental Psychology, 16, 277–296.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Masunaga, H. & Horn, J. L. (2000). Characterizing mature human intelligence: Expertise development. Learning and Individual Differences, 12, 5–33.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Masunaga, H. & Horn, J. L. (2001). Expertise and age-related changes in components of intelligence. Psychology and Aging, 16(2), 293–311.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
McArdle, J. J., Ferrer-Caja, E., Hamagami, F., & Woodcock, R. W. (2002). Comparative longitudinal structural analysis of the growth and decline of multiple intellectual abilities over the life span. Developmental Psychology, 38, 115–142.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
McArdle, J. J., Hamagami, F., Meredith, K. P., & Broadway, K. P. (2000). Modeling the dynamic hypotheses of Gf-Gc theory using longitudinal life-span data. Learning & Individual Differences, 12(1), 53–79.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
McArdle, J. J., Prescott, C. A., Hamagami, F., & Horn, J. L. (1998). A contemporary method for developmental-genetic analyses of age changes in intellectual abilities. Developmental Neuropsychology, 14, 69–114.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
McArdle, J. J. & Woodcock, R. (Eds.) (1998). Human Cognitive Abilities in theory and practice. Chicago, IL: Riverside.Google Scholar
McGregor, S. J., & Howes, A. (2002). The role of attach and defense semantics in skilled players' memory for chess positions. Memory & Cognition, 30(5), 707–717.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
McGrew, K. S., & Flanagan, D. P. (1998). The Intelligence Test Desk Reference (ITDR). Boston: Allyn and Bacon.Google Scholar
McGrew, K. S., Werder, J. K., & Woodcock, R. W. (1991). Woodcock-Johnson technical manual. Allen, Texas: DLM.Google Scholar
McGrew, K. S., & Woodcock, R. W. (2001). Technical Manual. Woodcock-Johnson III. Itasca, IL: Riverside Pulbishing.Google Scholar
Medina, J. J. (1996). The clock of ages. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Miller, G. A. (1956). The magical number Seven, plus or minus two. Psychological Review, 63, 81–97.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Morrow, D. G., Menard, W. E., Stine-Morrow, E. A. L., Teller, T, & Bryant, D. (2001). The influence of expertise and task factors on age differences in pilot communication. Psychology & Aging, 16(1), 31–46.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Noll, J., & Horn, J. L. (1997). Age differences in processes of fluid and crystallized intelligence. Chapter 4 in McArdle, J. J. & Woodcock, R. (Eds.), Human cognitive abilities in theory and practice (pp. 263–281). Chicago, IL: Riverside Press.Google Scholar
Patel, V. & Arocha, J. (1999). Medical expertise and cognitive aging. In Park, D. C. (Ed). Processing of medical information in aging patients: Cognitive and human factors perspectives (pp. 127–143). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Inc. Google Scholar
Proffitt, J. B., Coley, J. D., & Medin, D. L. (2000). Expertise and category-based induction. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, & Cognition, 26(4), 811–828.Google ScholarPubMed
Rabbitt, P. (1993). Crystal quest: A search for the basis of maintenance of practice skills into old age. In Baddeley, A. & Weiskrantz, L. (Eds.), Attention: Selection, awareness, and control (pp. 188–230). Oxford, England: Clarendon Press.Google Scholar
Rabbitt, P., & Abson, V. (1991). Do older people know how good they are? British Journal of Psychology, 82, 137–151.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Radvansky, G. A., & Copeland, D. E. (2000). Functionally and spatial relations in memory and language. Memory & Cognition, 28, 987–992.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Radvansky, G. A., Copeland, D. E., & Zwaan, R. A. (2003). Brief report: Aging and functional spatial relations in comprehension and memory. Psychology and Aging, 18, 161–165.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Raz, N. (2000). Aging of the brain and its impact on cognitive performance: Integration of structural and functional findings. In Craik, F. I. M. & Salthouse, T. A. (Eds.), The handbook of aging and cognition (2nd Ed, pp. 1–90). Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum.Google Scholar
Reitman, J. (1976). Skilled perception in GO: Deducing memory structures from inter-response times. Cognitive Psychology, 8, 336–356.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Rikers, R. M., Schmidt, H. G., Boshuizen, H. P. A., Linssen, G. C. M., Wesseling, G., & Paas, F. G. W. C. (2002). The robustness of medical expertise: Clinical case processing by medical experts and sub-experts. American Journal of Psychology, 115(4), 609–629.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Rimoldi, H. J. A. (1951). The central intellective factor. Psychometrika. 16, 75–101.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Salthouse, T. A. (1987). The role of representations in age differences in analogical reasoning. Psychology and Aging, 2, 357–362.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Salthouse, T. A. (1991a). Theoretical perspectives on cognitive aging. Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.Google Scholar
Salthouse, T. A. (1991b). Expertise as the circumvention of human processing limitations. In Ericsson, K. A. & Smith, J. (Eds.), Toward a general theory of expertise: Prospects and limits (pp. 286–300). New York: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Salthouse, T. A. (1992). Mechanisms of age-cognition relations in adulthood. Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.Google Scholar
Salthouse, T. A. (1993). Speed medication of adult age differences in cognition. Developmental Psychology, 29, 727–738.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Salthouse, T. A. (1994). The nature of influence of speed on adult age differences in cognition. Developmental Psychology, 30, 240–259.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Salthouse, T. A. (2001). Structural models of relations between age and measures of cognitive functioning. Intelligence, 29(2), 93–115.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Salthouse, T. A., Babcock, R. L., Skovronek, E., Mitchell, D. R. D., & Palmon, R. (1990). Age and experience effects in spatial visualization. Developmental Psychology, 26, 128–136.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Salthouse, T. A., & Ferrah-Caja, E. (2003). What needs to be explained to account for age-related effects on multiple cognitive variables? Psychology and Aging, 18, 91–110.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Salthouse, T. A., Kausler, D. H., & Saults, J. S. (1990). Age, self-assessed health status, and cognition. Journal of Gerontology, 45, 156–160.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Salthouse, T. A. & Somberg, B. L. (1982). Isolating the age deficit in speeded performance. Journal of Gerontology, 37, 59–63.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Schaie, K. W. (1996). Intellectual development in adulthood: The Seattle longitudinal study. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Schaie, K. W. (2000). The impact of longitudinal studies on understanding development from young adulthood to old age. International Journal of Behavioral Development, 24, 257–266.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Shaver, P. R., & Mikulincer, M. (2002). Attachment-related psychodynamics. Attachment & Human Development, 4, 133–161.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Simon, H. A., & Chase, W. G. (1973). Skill in chess. American Scientist, 61, 394–403.Google Scholar
Spearman, C. (1904). “General Intelligence,” objectively determined and measured. American Journal of Psychology, 15, 210–293.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Spearman, C. (1927). The abilities of man: Their nature and measurement. London: Macmillan.Google Scholar
Sperling, G. (1960). The information available in brief visual presentations. Psychological Monographs, 74, 498.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Spitz, R. A. (1946). Hospitalism; a follow-up report on investigation described in Volume I, 1945. Psychoanalytic Study of the Child, 2, 113–117.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Sroufe, L. A. (1977). Wariness of strangers and the study of infant development. Child Development, 48, 731–746.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Stankov, L. & Horn, J. L. (1980). Human abilities revealed through auditory tests. Journal of Educational Psychology, 72, 21–44.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Steiger, J. H. (1990). Structural model evaluation and modification: An interval estimation approach. Multivariate Behavioral Research, 25, 173–180.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Tisserand, D. J. & Jolles, J. (2003). On the involvement of prefrontal networks in cognitive ageing. Cortex, 39, 1107–1128.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Walsh, D. A. & Hershey, D. A. (1993). Mental models and the maintenance of complex problem-solving skills in old age. In Cerella, J., Rybash, J., Hoyer, W., & Commons, M. (Eds.), Adult information processing: Limits on loss (pp. 553–584). San Diego: Academic Press.Google Scholar
Weber, N. (2003). Expert memory: The interaction of stimulus structure, attention, and expertise. Applied Cognitive Psychology, 17, 295–308.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Woodcock, R. W. (1990). Theoretical foundations of the WJ-R measures of cognitive ability. Journal of Psychoeducational Assessment, 8, 231–258.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Woodcock, R. W., McGrew, K. S., & Mather, N. (2001). Woodcock-Johnson III. Itasca, IL: Riverside Publishing.Google Scholar

Save book to Kindle

To save this book to your Kindle, first ensure [email protected] is added to your Approved Personal Document E-mail List under your Personal Document Settings on the Manage Your Content and Devices page of your Amazon account. Then enter the ‘name’ part of your Kindle email address below. Find out more about saving to your Kindle.

Note you can select to save to either the @free.kindle.com or @kindle.com variations. ‘@free.kindle.com’ emails are free but can only be saved to your device when it is connected to wi-fi. ‘@kindle.com’ emails can be delivered even when you are not connected to wi-fi, but note that service fees apply.

Find out more about the Kindle Personal Document Service.

Available formats
×

Save book to Dropbox

To save content items to your account, please confirm that you agree to abide by our usage policies. If this is the first time you use this feature, you will be asked to authorise Cambridge Core to connect with your account. Find out more about saving content to Dropbox.

Available formats
×

Save book to Google Drive

To save content items to your account, please confirm that you agree to abide by our usage policies. If this is the first time you use this feature, you will be asked to authorise Cambridge Core to connect with your account. Find out more about saving content to Google Drive.

Available formats
×