Skip to main content Accessibility help
×
Hostname: page-component-586b7cd67f-t8hqh Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-11-23T00:55:20.907Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false

3 - Inclusive Fitness Theory

from Part I - Foundations of Evolution

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  30 June 2022

Todd K. Shackelford
Affiliation:
Oakland University, Michigan
Get access

Summary

Inclusive fitness theory provides explanations for many cooperative behaviors – particularly among kin – that enhance one’s likelihood of reproductive fitness. In short, any allele responsible for cooperative social behaviors may be naturally selected if its possessor were able to reproduce more frequently than other members of the same species who do not possess that allele (i.e., those who possess a competing allele). Since the inception of inclusive fitness theory, evolutionary scientists have hypothesized various mechanisms and behaviors that could be the product of specific naturally selected genes. These mechanisms include kin recognition, kin selection, parental investment, parent–offspring conflict, sexual and emotional jealousy, and aggression. Inclusive fitness theory is also one of the most widely misunderstood theories in evolutionary psychology. In this chapter, we describe inclusive fitness theory and expand upon these mechanisms by reviewing various studies within the evolutionary psychological literature, while also addressing the key misunderstandings of inclusive fitness theory.

Type
Chapter
Information
Publisher: Cambridge University Press
Print publication year: 2022

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

Alberts, S. C. (1999). Paternal kin discrimination in wild baboons. Proceedings of the Royal Society of London. Series B: Biological Sciences, 266(1427), 15011506.Google Scholar
Alvergne, A., Faurie, C., & Raymond, M. (2009). Father–offspring resemblance predicts paternal investment in humans. Animal Behaviour, 78(1), 6169.Google Scholar
Anderson, K. G., Kaplan, H., & Lancaster, J. (1999). Paternal care by genetic fathers and stepfathers I: Reports from Albuquerque men. Evolution and Human Behavior, 20(6), 405431.Google Scholar
Apicella, C. L., & Marlowe, F. W. (2004). Perceived mate fidelity and paternal resemblance predict men’s investment in children. Evolution and Human Behavior, 25(6), 371378.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Apostolou, M. (2007). Sexual selection under parental choice: The role of parents in the evolution of human mating. Evolution and Human Behavior, 28(6), 403409.Google Scholar
Apostolou, M. (2010). Parental choice: What parents want in a son‐in‐law and a daughter‐in‐law across 67 pre‐industrial societies. British Journal of Psychology, 101(4), 695704.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Barash, D., & Lipton, J. E. (1997). Making sense of sex: How genes and gender influence our relationships. Washington, DC: Island Press.Google Scholar
Beaulieu, D. A., & Bugental, D. (2008). Contingent parental investment: An evolutionary framework for understanding early interaction between mothers and children. Evolution and Human Behavior, 29(4), 249255.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bettencourt, B. A., & Miller, N. (1996). Gender differences in aggression as a function of provocation: A meta-analysis. Psychological Bulletin, 119(3), 422447.Google Scholar
Bjorklund, D. F., & Pellegrini, A. D. (2002). The origins of human nature: Evolutionary developmental psychology. Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.Google Scholar
Björkqvist, K. (1994). Sex differences in physical, verbal, and indirect aggression: A review of recent research. Sex Roles, 30(4), 177188.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Björkqvist, K., Österman, K., & Lagerspetz, K. M. (1994). Sex differences in covert aggression among adults. Aggressive Behavior, 20(1), 2733.3.0.CO;2-Q>CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Boesch, C., Lehmann, J., & Fickenscher, G. (2006). Kin biased investment in wild chimpanzees. Behaviour, 143(8), 931955.Google Scholar
Bornstein, M. H., & Putnick, D. L. (2007). Chronological age, cognitions, and practices in European American mothers: A multivariate study of parenting. Developmental Psychology, 43(4), 850.Google Scholar
Bressan, P., Colarelli, S. M., & Cavalieri, M. B. (2009). Biologically costly altruism depends on emotional closeness among step but not half and full siblings. Evolutionary Psychology, 7(1), 118132.Google Scholar
Burnstein, E., Crandall, C., & Kitayama, S. (1994). Some neo-Darwinian decision rules for altruism: Weighing cues for inclusive fitness as a function of the biological importance of the decision. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 67(5), 773789.Google Scholar
Buss, D. M. (1989). Sex differences in human mate preferences: Evolutionary hypotheses tested in 37 cultures. Behavioral and Brain Sciences, 12(1), 114.Google Scholar
Buss, D. M. (1996). Paternity uncertainty and the complex repertoire of human mating strategies. American Psychologist, 51(2), 161162.Google Scholar
Buss, D. M. (2015). Evolutionary psychology: The new science of the mind, 5th ed. New York, NY: Taylor & Francis.Google Scholar
Buss, D. M., & Dedden, L. A. (1990). Derogation of competitors. Journal of Social and Personal Relationships, 7(3), 395422.Google Scholar
Buss, D. M., Larsen, R. J., & Westen, D. (1996). Sex differences in jealousy: Not gone, not forgotten, and not explained by alternative hypotheses. Psychological Science, 7(6), 373375.Google Scholar
Buss, D. M., Larsen, R. J., Westen, D., & Semmelroth, J. (1992). Sex differences in jealousy: Evolution, physiology, and psychology. Psychological Science, 3(4), 251256.Google Scholar
Buss, D. M., Shackelford, T. K., Choe, J. A. E., Buunk, B. P., & Dijkstra, P. (2000). Distress about mating rivals. Personal Relationships, 7(3), 235243.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Buunk, A. P., Park, J. H., & Dubbs, S. L. (2008). Parent–offspring conflict in mate preferences. Review of General Psychology, 12(1), 4762.Google Scholar
Charpentier, M. J. E., Peignot, P., Hossaert-McKey, M., & Wickings, E. J. (2007). Kin discrimination in juvenile mandrills, Mandrillus sphinx. Animal Behaviour, 73(1), 3745.Google Scholar
Clark, C. B. (1977). A preliminary report on weaning among chimpanzees of the Gombe National Park, Tanzania. In Chevalier-Skolnikoff, S. & Poirier, F. E. (Eds.), Primate bio-social development (pp. 235260). New York, NY: Garland Press.Google Scholar
Clutton-Brock, T. H. (2002). Breeding together: Kin selection and mutualism in cooperative vertebrates. Science, 296(5565), 6972.Google Scholar
Clutton-Brock, T. H., O’Riain, M. J., Brotherton, P. N. M., Gaynor, D., Kansky, R., Griffin, A. S., & Manser, M. (1999). Selfish sentinels in cooperative mammals. Science, 284(5420), 16401644.Google Scholar
Daly, M., & Wilson, M. (1988). Evolutionary social psychology and family homicide. Science, 242(4878), 519524.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Daly, M., Wilson, M., & Weghorst, S. J. (1982). Male sexual jealousy. Ethology and Sociobiology, 3(1), 1127.Google Scholar
Danielsbacka, M., Tanskanen, A. O., Jokela, M., & Rotkirch, A. (2011). Grandparental child care in Europe: Evidence for preferential investment in more certain kin. Evolutionary Psychology, 9(1), 324.Google Scholar
Davis, A. C., Dufort, C., Desrochers, J., Vaillancourt, T., & Arnocky, S. (2018). Gossip as an intrasexual competition strategy: Sex differences in gossip frequency, content, and attitudes. Evolutionary Psychological Science, 4(2), 141153.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Dawkins, R. (1979). Twelve misunderstandings of kin selection. Zeitschrift für Tierpsychologie, 51(2), 184200.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
DeBruine, L. M., Jones, B. C., Little, A. C., & Perrett, D. I. (2008). Social perception of facial resemblance in humans. Archives of Sexual Behavior, 37(1), 6477.Google Scholar
Dijkstra, P., & Buunk, B. P. (2001). Sex differences in the jealousy-evoking nature of a rival’s body build. Evolution and Human Behavior, 22(5), 335341.Google Scholar
Dunn, M. J., & Ward, K. (2020). Infidelity-revealing Snapchat messages arouse different levels of jealousy depending on sex, type of message and identity of the opposite sex rival. Evolutionary Psychological Science, 6, 3846.Google Scholar
Euler, H. A., & Weitzel, B. (1996). Discriminative grandparental solicitude as reproductive strategy. Human Nature, 7(1), 3959.Google Scholar
Fitzgerald, C. J. (2021). Problems with group selection. In Shackelford, T. K. & Weekes-Shackelford, V. A. (Eds.), Encyclopedia of evolutionary psychological science. New York, NY: Springer.Google Scholar
Fitzgerald, C. J., & Colarelli, S. M. (2009). Altruism and reproductive limitations. Evolutionary Psychology, 7(2), 234252.Google Scholar
Fitzgerald, C. J., & Ketterer, H. L. (2011). Examining verbal and physical retaliation against kinship insults. Violence and Victims, 26(5), 580592.Google Scholar
Fitzgerald, C. J., Thompson, M. C., & Whitaker, M. B. (2010). Altruism between romantic partners: Biological offspring as a genetic bridge between altruist and recipient. Evolutionary Psychology, 8(3), 462476.Google Scholar
Fitzgerald, C. J., & Whitaker, M. B. (2009). Sex differences in violent versus non-violent life-threatening altruism. Evolutionary Psychology, 7(3), 467476.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Fredrickson, W. T., & Sackett, G. P. (1984). Kin preferences in primates (Macaca nemestrina): Relatedness or familiarity? Journal of Comparative Psychology, 98(1), 2934.Google Scholar
Gaulin, S. J., McBurney, D. H., & Brakeman-Wartell, S. L. (1997). Matrilateral biases in the investment of aunts and uncles. Human Nature, 8(2), 139151.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Gesselman, A. N., & Webster, G. D. (2012). Inclusive fitness affects both prosocial and antisocial behavior: Target gender and insult domain moderate the link between genetic relatedness and aggression. Evolutionary Psychology, 10(4), 750761.Google Scholar
Gomendio, M. (1991). Parent/offspring conflict and maternal investment in rhesus macaques. Animal Behaviour, 42(6), 9931005.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hamilton, W. D. (1964). The genetical evolution of social behaviour: I. Journal of Theoretical Biology, 7(1), 116.Google Scholar
Harris, C. R. (2002). Sexual and romantic jealousy in heterosexual and homosexual adults. Psychological Science, 13(1), 712.Google Scholar
Harrison, M. L., & Tardif, S. D. (1988). Kin preference in marmosets and tamarins: Saguinus oedipus and Callithrix jacchus (Callitrichidae, Primates). American Journal of Physical Anthropology, 77(3), 377384.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hauber, M. E., & Sherman, P. W. (2001). Self-referent phenotype matching: Theoretical considerations and empirical evidence. Trends in Neurosciences, 24(10), 609616.Google Scholar
Hennighausen, C., Hudders, L., Lange, B. P., & Fink, H. (2016). What if the rival drives a Porsche? Luxury car spending as a costly signal in male intrasexual competition. Evolutionary Psychology, 14(4), 1474704916678217.Google Scholar
Hepper, P. G. (2005). Kin recognition. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Holmes, W. G. (1986). Kin recognition by phenotype matching in female Belding’s ground squirrels. Animal Behaviour, 34(1), 3847.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Horr, D. A. (1977). Orangutan maturation: Growing up in a female world. In Chevalier-Skolnikoff, S. & Poirier, F. E. (Eds.), Primate bio-social development (pp. 289321). New York, NY: Garland Press.Google Scholar
Jankowiak, W., & Diderich, M. (2000). Sibling solidarity in a polygamous community in the USA: Unpacking inclusive fitness. Evolution and Human Behavior, 21(2), 125139.Google Scholar
Jeon, J., & Buss, D. M. (2007). Altruism towards cousins. Proceedings of the Royal Society of London. Series B: Biological Sciences, 274(1614), 11811187.Google Scholar
Johnson, C., Koerner, C., Estrin, M., & Duoos, D. (1980). Alloparental care and kinship in captive social groups of vervet monkeys (Cercopithecus aethiops sabaeus). Primates, 21(3), 406415.Google Scholar
Judge, D. S., & Hrdy, S. B. (1992). Allocation of accumulated resources among close kin: Inheritance in Sacramento, California, 1890–1984. Ethology and Sociobiology, 13(5), 495522.Google Scholar
Kazem, A. J., & Widdig, A. (2013). Visual phenotype matching: Cues to paternity are present in rhesus macaque faces. PLoS One, 8(2), e55846.Google Scholar
Kruger, D. J. (2001). Psychological aspects of adaptations for kin directed altruistic helping behaviors. Social Behavior and Personality, 29(4), 323330.Google Scholar
Krupp, D. B., DeBruine, L. M., Jones, B. C., & Lalumière, M. L. (2012). Kin recognition: Evidence that humans can perceive both positive and negative relatedness. Journal of Evolutionary Biology, 25(8), 14721478.Google Scholar
Langergraber, K. E., Mitani, J. C., & Vigilant, L. (2007). The limited impact of kinship on cooperation in wild chimpanzees. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 104(19), 77867790.Google Scholar
Lieberman, D., Tooby, J., & Cosmides, L. (2007). The architecture of human kin detection. Nature, 445(7129), 727731.Google Scholar
Lu, H. J., & Chang, L. (2016). Resource allocation to kin, friends, and strangers by 3- to 6-year-old children. Journal of Experimental Child Psychology, 150, 194206.Google Scholar
Lu, H. J., Zhu, X. Q., & Chang, L. (2015). Good genes, good providers, and good fathers: Economic development involved in how women select a mate. Evolutionary Behavioral Sciences, 9(4), 215.Google Scholar
MacKenzie, M. M., McGrew, W. C., & Chamove, A. S. (1985). Social preferences in stump-tailed macaques (Macaca arcoides): Effects of companionship, kinship, and rearing. Developmental Psychobiology, 18(2), 115123.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Maestripieri, D. (2002). Parent–offspring conflict in primates. International Journal of Primatology, 23(4), 923951.Google Scholar
Marshall, J. A., 2016. What is inclusive fitness theory, and what is it for? Current Opinion in Behavioural Sciences, 12, 103108.Google Scholar
Mateo, J. M. (2015). Perspectives: Hamilton’s legacy – mechanisms of kin recognition in humans. Ethology, 121(5), 419427.Google Scholar
Michalski, R. L., & Shackelford, T. K. (2005). Grandparental investment as a function of relational uncertainty and emotional closeness with parents. Human Nature, 16(3), 293305.Google Scholar
Moehlman, P. D. (1979). Jackal helpers and pup survival. Nature, 277(5695), 382383.Google Scholar
Neyer, F. J., & Lang, F. R. (2003). Blood is thicker than water: Kinship orientation across adulthood. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 84(2), 310321.Google Scholar
Niemeyer, C. L., & Anderson, J. R. (1983). Primate harassment of matings. Ethology and Sociobiology, 4(4), 205220.Google Scholar
Nowak, M. A. (2006). Five rules for the evolution of cooperation. Science, 314(5805), 15601563.Google Scholar
Nowak, M. A., Tarnita, C. E., & Wilson, E. O. (2010). The evolution of eusociality. Nature, 466(7310), 10571062.Google Scholar
Park, J. H. (2007). Persistent misunderstandings of inclusive fitness and kin selection: Their ubiquitous appearance in social psychology textbooks. Evolutionary Psychology, 5(4), 860873.Google Scholar
Park, J. H., Schaller, M., and Van Vugt, M. (2008). Psychology of human kin recognition: Heuristic cues, erroneous inferences, and their implications. Review of General Psychology, 12(3), 215235.Google Scholar
Parr, L. A., & de Waal, F. B. M. (1999). Visual kin recognition in chimpanzees. Nature, 399(6737), 647648.Google Scholar
Pashos, A. (2000). Does paternal uncertainty explain discriminative grandparental solicitude? A cross-cultural study in Greece and Germany. Evolution and Human Behavior, 21(2), 97109.Google Scholar
Pashos, A., & McBurney, D. H. (2008). Kin relationships and the caregiving biases of grandparents, aunts, and uncles. Human Nature, 19(3), 311330.Google Scholar
Perry, S., Manson, J. H., Muniz, L., Gros-Louis, J., & Vigilant, L. (2008). Kin-biased social behaviour in wild adult female white-faced capuchins, Cebus capucinus. Animal Behaviour, 76(1), 187199.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Pizzari, T., Biernaskie, J. M., & Carazo, P. (2014). Inclusive fitness and sexual conflict: How population structure can modulate the battle of the sexes. Bioessays, 37, 155166.Google Scholar
Platek, S. M., Burch, R. L., Panyavin, I. S., Wasserman, B. H., & Gallup, G. G. Jr. (2002). Reactions to children’s faces: Resemblance affects males more than females. Evolution and Human Behavior, 23(3), 159166.Google Scholar
Pollet, T. V., Nelissen, M., & Nettle, D. (2009). Lineage based differences in grandparental investment: Evidence from a large British cohort study. Journal of Biosocial Science, 41(3), 355.Google Scholar
Pollet, T. V., Nettle, D., & Nelissen, M. (2006). Contact frequencies between grandparents and grandchildren in a modern society: Estimates of the impact of paternity uncertainty. Journal of Cultural and Evolutionary Psychology, 4(3–4), 203213.Google Scholar
Reid, C. R., Lutz, M. J., Powell, S., Kao, A. B., Couzin, I. D., & Garnier, S. (2015). Army ants dynamically adjust living bridges in response to a cost–benefit trade-off. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 112(49), 1511315118.Google Scholar
Schlomer, G. L., Del Giudice, M., & Ellis, B. J. (2011). Parent–offspring conflict theory: An evolutionary framework for understanding conflict within human families. Psychological Review, 118(3), 496.Google Scholar
Seeley, T. D. (1997). Honey bee colonies are group-level adaptive units. The American Naturalist, 150(suppl. 1), S22S41.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Silk, J. B. (2009). Nepotistic cooperation in non-human primate groups. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences, 364(1533), 32433254.Google Scholar
Smith, K., Alberts, S. C., & Altmann, J. (2003). Wild female baboons bias their social behaviour towards paternal half-sisters. Proceedings of the Royal Society of London. Series B: Biological Sciences, 270, 503510.Google Scholar
Stewart-Williams, S. (2007). Altruism among kin vs. non-kin: Effects of cost of help and reciprocal exchange. Evolution and Human Behavior, 28(3), 193198.Google Scholar
Stewart-Williams, S. (2008). Human beings as evolved nepotists: Exceptions to the rule and effects of the cost of help. Human Nature, 19(4), 414425.Google Scholar
Symons, D. (1979). The evolution of human sexuality. New York, NY: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Thompson, J. A., & Fitzgerald, C. J. (2017). Nepotistic preferences in a computerized trolley problem. Current Research in Social Psychology, 25(7), 3644.Google Scholar
Trivers, R. L. (1972). Parental investment and sexual selection. In Campbell, B. G. (Ed.), Sexual selection and the descent of man, 1871–1971 (pp. 136179). Chicago, IL: Aldine.Google Scholar
Trivers, R. L. (1974). Parent–offspring conflict. Integrative and Comparative Biology, 14(1), 249264.Google Scholar
Vokey, J. R., Rendall, D., Tangen, J. M., Parr, L. A., & de Waal, F. B. M. (2004). Visual kin recognition and family resemblance in chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes). Journal of Comparative Psychology, 118(2), 194199.Google Scholar
Webster, G. D. (2003). Prosocial behavior in families: Moderators of resource sharing. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 39(6), 644652.Google Scholar
Webster, G. D. (2004). Human kin investment as a function of genetic relatedness and lineage. Evolutionary Psychology, 2(1), 129141.Google Scholar
Webster, G. D. (2008). The kinship, acceptance, and rejection model of altruism and aggression (KARMAA): Implications for interpersonal and intergroup aggression. Group Dynamics: Theory, Research, and Practice, 12(1), 2738.Google Scholar
Webster, G. D., Cottrell, C. A., Schember, T. O., Crysel, L. C., Crosier, B. S., Gesselman, A. N., & Le, B. M. (2012). Two sides of the same coin? Viewing altruism and aggression through the adaptive lens of kinship. Social and Personality Psychology Compass, 6(8), 575588.Google Scholar
Weeden, J., & Sabini, J. (2005). Physical attractiveness and health in Western societies: A review. Psychological Bulletin, 131(5), 635.Google Scholar
Wells, P. A. (1987). Kin recognition in humans. In Fletcher, D. J. C. & Michener, C. D. (Eds.), Kin recognition in animals (pp. 395416). New York, NY: Wiley.Google Scholar
Widdig, A. (2007). Paternal kin discrimination: The evidence and likely mechanisms. Biological Reviews, 82(2), 319334.Google Scholar
Wolff, J. O., & Peterson, J. A. (1998). An offspring-defense hypothesis for territoriality in female mammals. Ethology Ecology & Evolution, 10(3), 227239.Google Scholar
Wrangham, R. W. (1987). Evolution of social structure. In Smuts, B., Cheney, D. L., Seyfarth, R. M., Wrangham, R. W., & Struhsaker, T. T. (Eds.), Primate societies (pp. 282296). Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press.Google Scholar
Wu, H. M. H., Holmes, W. G., Medina, S. R., & Sackett, G. P. (1980). Kin preference in infant Macaca nemestrina. Nature, 285(5762), 225227.Google Scholar

Save book to Kindle

To save this book to your Kindle, first ensure [email protected] is added to your Approved Personal Document E-mail List under your Personal Document Settings on the Manage Your Content and Devices page of your Amazon account. Then enter the ‘name’ part of your Kindle email address below. Find out more about saving to your Kindle.

Note you can select to save to either the @free.kindle.com or @kindle.com variations. ‘@free.kindle.com’ emails are free but can only be saved to your device when it is connected to wi-fi. ‘@kindle.com’ emails can be delivered even when you are not connected to wi-fi, but note that service fees apply.

Find out more about the Kindle Personal Document Service.

Available formats
×

Save book to Dropbox

To save content items to your account, please confirm that you agree to abide by our usage policies. If this is the first time you use this feature, you will be asked to authorise Cambridge Core to connect with your account. Find out more about saving content to Dropbox.

Available formats
×

Save book to Google Drive

To save content items to your account, please confirm that you agree to abide by our usage policies. If this is the first time you use this feature, you will be asked to authorise Cambridge Core to connect with your account. Find out more about saving content to Google Drive.

Available formats
×