Skip to main content Accessibility help

We use cookies to distinguish you from other users and to provide you with a better experience on our websites. Close this message to accept cookies or find out how to manage your cookie settings.

Close cookie message
×
Hostname: page-component-78c5997874-xbtfd Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-11-17T16:57:14.616Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false

18 - Mirror Self-Recognition

Five Decades of Primate Research

from Part III - Social Cognition

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  01 July 2021

By
James R. Anderson  and
David L. Butler
Edited by
Allison B. Kaufman ,
Josep Call  and
James C. Kaufman
Allison B. Kaufman
Affiliation:
University of Connecticut
Josep Call
Affiliation:
University of St Andrews, Scotland
James C. Kaufman
Affiliation:
University of Connecticut
Get access

Summary

This chapter reviews five decades of research on reactions to mirrors and self-recognition in nonhuman primates, starting with Gallup’s (1970) pioneering experimental demonstration of self-recognition in chimpanzees and its apparent absence in monkeys. Taking a decade-by-decade approach, developments in the field are presented separately for great apes on the one hand, and all other primates on the other (prosimians, monkeys, and so-called lesser apes), considering both empirical studies and theoretical issues. The literature clearly shows that among nonhuman primates the most compelling evidence for something approaching human-like visual self-recognition is seen only in great apes, despite an impressive range of sometimes highly original procedures employed to study many monkey species. In the past decade, research has been shifting from simple questions about whether great apes can self-recognize (now considered beyond doubt), to addressing possible biological bases for individual and species differences in the strength of self-recognition, analysis of possible adaptive functions of the capacity for self-visualization, and searching for evidence of self-recognition in a range of nonprimate species.

Keywords

self-awarenessself-recognitionprimatesgreat apesprosimiansmonkeysmirrorvideofunction
Type
Chapter
Information
The Cambridge Handbook of Animal Cognition , pp. 415 - 440
Publisher: Cambridge University Press
Print publication year: 2021

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

Allen, M. & Schwartz, B. L. (2008). Mirror self-recognition in a gorilla (Gorilla gorilla gorilla). Electronic Journal of Integrative Biosciences, 5, 19–24.Google Scholar
Anderson, J. R. (1983a). Responses to mirror-image stimulation and assessment of self-recognition in mirror- and peer-reared stumptail macaques. Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology, 35, 201–212.Google Scholar
Anderson, J. R. (1983b). Mirror-image stimulation and short separations in stumptail monkeys. Animal Learning & Behavior, 11, 139–143.Google Scholar
Anderson, J. R. (1984). Monkeys with mirrors: Some questions for primate psychology. International Journal of Primatology, 5, 81–98.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Anderson, J. R. (1986). Mirror-mediated finding of hidden food by monkeys (Macaca tonkeana and M. fascicularis). Journal of Comparative Psychology, 100, 237–242.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Anderson, J. R. (1993). To see ourselves as others see us: A response to Mitchell. New Ideas in Psychology, 11, 339–346.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Anderson, J. R. (1994). The Monkey in the Mirror: A Strange Conspecific. In Parker, S. T., Mitchell, R. W., & Boccia, M. L. (Eds.), Self-Awareness in Animals and Humans: Developmental Perspectives (pp. 315–329). New York: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Anderson, J. R. & Bayart, F. (1985). Les effets du miroir sur le comportement de macaques: Habituation, évitement et facilitation sociale. Biologie du Comportement, 10, 159–167.Google Scholar
Anderson, J. R. & Chamove, A. S. (1986). Infant stumptailed macaques reared with mirrors or peers: Social responsiveness, attachment, and adjustment. Primates, 27, 63–82.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Anderson, J. R. & Roeder, J.-J. (1989). Responses of capuchin monkeys (Cebus apella) to different conditions of mirror-image stimulation. Primates, 30, 581–587Google Scholar
Anderson, J. R. & Gallup, G. G. Jr. (1997). Self-recognition in Saguinus? A critical essay. Animal Behaviour, 54, 1563–1567.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Anderson, J. R. & Gallup, G. G. Jr. (1999). Self-Recognition in Nonhuman Primates: Past and Future Challenges. In Haug, M. & Whalen, R. E. (Eds.), Animal Models of Human Emotion and Cognition (pp. 175–194). Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.Google Scholar
Anderson, J. R., Kuroshima, H., Paukner, A., & Fujita, K. (2008). Capuchin monkeys (Cebus apella) respond to video images of themselves. Animal Cognition, 12, 55–62.Google Scholar
Anderson, J. R. & Gallup, G. G. Jr. (2011a). Which primates recognize themselves in mirrors? PLoS Biology, 9(3), e1001023. doi: 10.1371/journal.pbio.1001024CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Anderson, J. R. & Gallup, G. G. Jr. (2011b). Do rhesus monkeys recognize themselves in mirrors? American Journal of Primatology, 73, 606–606.Google Scholar
Anderson, J. R. & Gallup, G. G. Jr. (2015). Mirror self-recognition: A review and critique of attempts to promote and engineer self-recognition in primates. Primates, 56, 317–326.Google Scholar
Anderson, J. R., Hubert-Brierre, X., & McGrew, W. C. (2017). Reflections in the rainforest: Full-length mirrors facilitate behavioral observations of unhabituated, wild chimpanzees. Primates, 58, 51–61.Google Scholar
Antinucci, F. & Visalberghi, E. (1986). Tool use in Cebus apella: A case study. International Journal of Primatology, 7, 351–363.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bard, K. A., Todd, B. K., Bernier, C., Love, J., & Leavens, D. A. (2006). Self-awareness in human and chimpanzee infants: What is measured and what is meant by the mark and mirror test? Infancy, 9, 1912–1919.Google Scholar
Bayart, F. & Anderson, J. R. (1985). Mirror-image reactions in a tool-using, adult male Macaca tonkeana. Behavioural Processes, 10, 219–227.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Becker, M. L., Watson, S. L., & Ward, J. P. (1999). Mirror-directed social behaviors of Garnett’s greater bush baby (Otolemur garnetti). International Journal of Primatology, 20, 633–650.Google Scholar
Benhar, E., Carlton, P. L., & Samuel, D. A. (1975). A Search for Mirror-Image Reinforcement and Self-Recognition in the Baboon. In Kondo, S., Kawai, M., & Ehara, A. (Eds.), Contemporary Primatology: Proceedings of the Fifth International Congress of Primatology. Tokyo: Japan Science Press.Google Scholar
Brent, L. & Stone, A. M. (1996). Long-term use of televisions, balls and mirrors as enrichment for paired and singly caged chimpanzees. American Journal of Primatology, 39, 139–145.Google Scholar
Butler, D. & Suddendorf, T. (2014). Reducing the neural search space for hominid cognition: What distinguishes human and great ape brains from those of small apes? Psychonomic Bulletin & Review, 21, 590–619.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Butler, D. L. & Anderson, J. R. (2018). Visual Self-Recognition. In Vonk, J., & Shackelford, T. K. (Eds.), Encyclopedia of Animal Cognition and Behavior, Cham, Switzerland: Springer International Publishing AG. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-47829-6_742-1Google Scholar
Calhoun, S. & Thompson, R. L. (1988). Long-term retention of self-recognition by chimpanzees. American Journal of Primatology, 15, 361–365.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Chang, L., Fang, Q., Zhang, S., Poo, M., & Gong, N. (2015). Mirror-induced self-directed behaviors in rhesus monkeys after visual-somatosensory training. Current Biology, 25, 212–217.Google Scholar
Clarke, A. S., Czekala, N. M., & Lindburg, D. G. (1995). Behavioral and adrenocortical responses of male cynomolgus and lion-tailed macaques to social stimulation and group formation. Primates, 36, 41–56.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Collinge, N. E. (1989). Mirror reactions in a zoo colony of Cebus monkeys. Zoo Biology, 8, 89–98.Google Scholar
Cooley, C. H. (1912). Human Nature and the Social Order. New York: Scribner’s.Google Scholar
Darwin, C. (1872/1998). The Expression of the Emotions in Man and Animals. London: John Murray/London: Fontana Press.Google Scholar
Eddy, T. J., Gallup, G. G. Jr., & Povinelli, D. J. (1996). Age differences in the ability of chimpanzees to distinguish mirror-images of self from video-images of others. Journal of Comparative Psychology, 110, 38–44.Google Scholar
Eglash, A. R. & Snowdon, C. T. (1983). Mirror-image responses in pygmy marmosets (Cebuella pygmaea). American Journal of Primatology, 5, 211–219.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Fornasieri, I., Roeder, J.-J., & Anderson, J. R. (1991). Réactions au miroir chez trois espèces de lémuriens (Lemurs fulvus, L. macaco, L. catta). Comptes Rendus de l’Académie de Sciences de Paris, 312 (Série III), 349–354.Google Scholar
Gallup, G. G. Jr. (1968). Mirror-image stimulation. Psychological Bulletin, 70, 782–793.Google Scholar
Gallup, G. G. Jr. (1970). Chimpanzees: Self-recognition. Science, 167, 86–87.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Gallup, G. G. Jr. (1977a). Self-recognition in primates: A comparative approach to the bidirectional properties of consciousness. American Psychologist, 32, 329–338.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Gallup, G. G. Jr. (1977b). Absence of self-recognition in a monkey (Macaca fascicularis) following prolonged exposure to a mirror. Developmental Psychobiology, 10, 281–284,Google Scholar
Gallup, G. G. Jr. (1979). Self-Recognition in Chimpanzees and Man: A Developmental and Comparative Perspective. In Lewis, M. & Rosenblum, L. A. (Eds.), The Child and Its Family (pp. 107–126). New York: Plenum Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Gallup, G. G. Jr. (1982) Self-awareness and the emergence of mind in primates. American Journal of Primatology, 2, 237–248.Google Scholar
Gallup, G. G Jr. (1987). Self-awareness. In Mitchell, G (Ed.), Comparative Primate Biology, Vol. 2, Part B: Behavior, Cognition, and Motivation (pp. 3–16). New York: Liss.Google Scholar
Gallup, G. G. Jr. (1997). On the rise and fall of self-conception in primates. Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences, 818, 73–82.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Gallup, G. G. Jr., McClure, M. K., Hill, S. D., & Bundy, R. A. (1971). Capacity for self-recognition in differentially reared chimpanzees. Psychological Record, 21, 69–74CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Gallup, G. G. Jr. & McClure, M. K. (1971). Preference for mirror-image stimulation in differentially reared rhesus monkeys. Journal of Comparative and Physiological Psychology, 75, 403–407.Google Scholar
Gallup, G. G. Jr., Wallnau, L. B., & Suarez, S. D. (1980). Failure to find self-recognition in mother-infant and infant-infant rhesus monkey pairs. Folia Primatologica, 33, 210–219.Google Scholar
Gallup, G. G. Jr. & Suarez, S. D. (1991). Social responding to mirrors in rhesus monkeys (Macaca mulatta): Effects of temporary mirror removal. Journal of Comparative Psychology, 105, 376–379.Google Scholar
Gallup, G. G. Jr. & Povinelli, D. J. (1993). Mirror, mirror on the wall which is the most heuristic theory of them all? A response to Mitchell. New Ideas in Psychology, 11, 327–335.Google Scholar
Gallup, G. G. Jr, Povinelli, D. J., Suarez, S. D., Anderson, J. R., Lethmate, J., & Menzel, E. W. Jr. (1995). Further reflections on self-recognition in primates. Animal Behaviour, 50, 1525–1532.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Gallup, G. G. Jr. & Anderson, J. R. (2018). The “olfactory mirror” and other recent attempts to demonstrate self-recognition in non-primate species. Behavioural Processes, 148, 16–19.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Gallup, G. G. Jr. & Anderson, J. R. (2020). Self-recognition in animals: Where do we stand 50 years later? Lessons from cleaner wrasse and other species. Psychology of Consciousness: Theory, Research, and Practice, 7, 46–58.Google Scholar
Gardner, R. A. & Gardner, B. T. (1978). Comparative psychology and language acquisition. Comparative Psychology and Language Acquisition. Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences, 309, 37–76.Google Scholar
de Groot, B. & Cheyne, S. M. (2016). Does mirror enrichment improve primate well-being? Animal Welfare, 25, 163–170.Google Scholar
Harris, H. G. & Edwards, A. J. (2004). Mirrors as environmental enrichment for African green monkeys. American Journal of Primatology, 64, 459–467.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Hauser, M. D., Kralik, J., Botto-Mahan, C., Garrett, M., & Oser, J. (1995). Self-recognition in primates: Phylogeny and the salience of species-typical features. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences USA, 92, 10811–10814.Google Scholar
Hauser, M. D., Miller, C. T., Liu, K., & Gupta, R. (2001). Cotton-top tamarins (Saguinus oedipus) fail to show mirror-guided self-exploration. American Journal of Primatology, 53, 131–137.Google Scholar
Hecht, E. E., Mahovetz, L., Preuss, T. M, & Hopkins, W. D. (2017). A neuro- anatomical predictor of mirror self-recognition in chimpanzees. Social Cognitive and Affective Neuroscience, 12, 37–48.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Heschl, A. & Burkart, J. (2006). A new mark test for mirror self-recognition in non-human primates. Primates, 47, 187–198.Google Scholar
Heschl, A., & Fuchsbichler, C. (2009). Siamangs (Hylobates syndactylus) recognize their mirror image. International Journal of Comparative Psychology, 22, 221–233.Google Scholar
Heyes, C. M. (1994). Reflections on self-recognition in primates. Animal Behaviour, 47, 909–919.Google Scholar
Hill, S. D., Bundy, R. A., Gallup, G. G. Jr., & McClure, M. K. (1970). Responsiveness of young nursery-reared chimpanzees to mirrors. Proceedings of the Louisiana Academy of Sciences, 33, 77–82.Google Scholar
Hirata, S. (2007). A note on the responses of chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes) to live self-images on television monitors. Behavioural Processes, 75, 85–90.Google Scholar
Hirata, S., Fuwa, K., & Myowa, M. (2017). Chimpanzees recognize their own delayed self-image. Royal Society Open Science, 4, 170370. http://dx.doi.org/10.1098/rsos.170370Google Scholar
Hopkins, W. D., Latzman, R. D., Mahovetz, K. M., Li, X, & Roberts, N. (2019). Investigating individual differences in chimpanzee mirror self-recognition and cortical thickness: A vertex-based and region-of-interest analysis. Cortex, 118, 306–314.Google Scholar
Hyatt, C. W. (1998). Responses of gibbons (Hylobates lar) to their mirror images. American Journal of Primatology, 45, 307–311.3.0.CO;2-#>CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Hyatt, C. W., & Hopkins, W. D. (1994). Self-Awareness in Bonobos and Chimpanzees: A Comparative Perspective. In Parker, S. T., Mitchell, R. W., & Boccia, M. L. (Eds.), Self-Awareness in Animals and Humans: Developmental Perspectives (pp. 248–253). New York: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Inoue-Nakamura, N. (1997). Mirror self-recognition in primates: A phylogenetic perspective. Japanese Psychological Research, 39, 266–275.Google Scholar
Inoue-Nakamura, N. (2001). Mirror Self-Recognition in Primates: An Ontogenetic and a Phylogenetic Approach. In Matsuzawa, T. (Ed.), Primate Origins of Human Cognition and Behavior (pp. 297–312). Tokyo: Springer.Google Scholar
Itakura, S. (1987a). Mirror guided behavior in Japanese monkeys (Macaca fuscata). Primates, 28, 149–161.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Itakura, S. (1987b). Use of a mirror to direct their responses in Japanese monkeys (Macaca fuscata fuscata). Primates, 28, 343–352.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Jorgensen, M. J., Suomi, S. J., & Hopkins, W. D. (1995). Using a Computerized Testing System to Investigate the Preconceptual Self in Nonhuman Primates. In Rochat, P. (Ed.), The Self in Infancy: Theory and Research (pp. 243–256). Amsterdam: Elsevier.Google Scholar
Kaplan, J. (1977). Some Behavioral Observations of Surrogate- and Mother-Reared Squirrel Monkeys. In Chevalier-Skolnikoff, S. & Poirier, F. E. (Eds.), Primate Bio-Social Development: Biological, Social, and Ecological Determinants (pp. 501–511). New York: Garland Publishing, Inc.Google Scholar
Kaneko, T. & Tomonaga, M. (2011). The perception of self-agency in chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes). Proceedings of the Royal Society B, 278, 3694–3702.Google Scholar
Kaneko, T. & Tomonaga, M. (2012). Relative contributions of goal representation and kinematic information to self-monitoring by chimpanzees and humans. Cognition, 125, 168–178.Google Scholar
Kenney, M. D., Mason, W. A., & Hill, S. D. (1979). Effects of age, objects, and visual experience on affective responses of rhesus monkeys to strangers. Developmental Psychology, 15, 176–184.Google Scholar
Kitchen, A., Denton, D., & Brent, L. (1996). Self-recognition and abstraction abilities in the common chimpanzee studied with distorting mirrors. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences USA, 93, 7405–7408.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Lambeth, S. P. & Bloomsmith, M. A. (1992). Mirrors as enrichment for captive chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes). Laboratory Animal Science, 42, 261–266.Google Scholar
Law, L. E. & Lock, A. J. (1994). Do Gorillas Recognize Themselves on Television? In Parker, S. T., Mitchell, R. W., & Boccia, M. L. (Eds.), Self-Awareness in Animals and Humans: Developmental Perspectives (pp. 308–312). New York: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Ledbetter, D. H. & Basen, J. (1982). Failure to demonstrate self-recognition in gorillas. American Journal of Primatology, 2, 307–310.Google Scholar
Lethmate, J. (1974). Selbst-Kenntnis bei Menschenaffen. Umschau, 15, 486–487.Google Scholar
Lethmate, J. & Dücker, G. (1973). Untersuchungen zum Selbsterkennen im Spiegel bei Orang-utans und einigen anderen Affenarten. Zeitschrift für Tierpsychologie, 33, 248–269.Google Scholar
Lewis, M & Brooks-Gunn, J. (1979). Social Cognition and the Acquisition of Self. New York: Plenum Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Lin, A. C., Bard, K. A., & Anderson, J. R. (1992). Development of self-recognition in chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes). Journal of Comparative Psychology, 106, 120–127.Google Scholar
Lipp, H. P. & Hunsperger, R. W. (1978). Threat, attack and flight elicited by electrical stimulation of the ventromedial hypothalamus of the marmoset monkey (Callithrix jacchus). Brain, Behavior and Evolution, 15, 260–293.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Macellini, S., Ferrari, P. F., Bonini, L., Fogassi, L., & Paukner, A. (2010). A modified mark test for own-body recognition in pig-tailed macaques (Macaca nemestrina). Animal Cognition, 13, 631–639.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Mahovetz, L. M., Young, L. J., & Hopkins, W. D. (2016). The influence of AVPR1A genotype on individual differences in behaviors during a mirror self-recognition task in chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes). Genes, Brain and Behavior, 15, 445–452.Google Scholar
Marchal, P. & Anderson, J. R. (1993). Mirror-images responses in capuchin monkeys (Cebus capucinus): Social responses and use of reflected environmental information. Folia Primatologica, 61, 165–173.Google Scholar
Menzel, E. W. Jr., Savage-Rumbaugh, E. S., & Lawson, J. (1985). Chimpanzee (Pan troglodytes) spatial problem solving with the use of mirrors and televised equivalents of mirrors. Journal of Comparative Psychology, 99, 211–217.Google Scholar
Miles, H. L. W. (1994). Me Chantek: The Development of Self-Awareness in a Signing Orangutan. In Parker, S. T., Mitchell, R. W., & Boccia, M. L. (Eds.), Self-Awareness in Animals and Humans: Developmental Perspectives (pp. 254–272). New York: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Mitchell, R. W. (1993). Mental models of mirror self-recognition: Two theories. New Ideas in Psychology, 11, 295–325.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Mitchell, R. W. & Anderson, J. R. (1993). Discrimination learning of scratching, but failure to obtain imitation and self-recognition in a long-tailed macaque. Primates, 34, 301–309.Google Scholar
Murray, L. E. (2020). Video-mediated behavior in gorillas (Gorilla gorilla gorilla): a stage in the development of self-recognition in a juvenile male? Journal of Comparative Psychology, 134, 293–302.Google Scholar
Murray, L. E., Schaffner, C. M., Aureli, F., & Amici, F. (2020). There is no other monkey in the mirror for spider monkeys (Ateles geoffroyi). Journal of Comparative Psychology, 134, 323–329.Google Scholar
Neel, M.-A. (1996). Mirrors, monkeys, and group dynamics. Primates, 37, 411–421.Google Scholar
Neiworth, J. J., Anders, S. L., & Parsons, R. R. (2001). Tracking responses related to self-recognition: A frequency comparison of responses to mirrors, photographs, and videotapes by cotton top tamarins (Saguinus oedipus). Journal of Comparative Psychology, 115, 432–438.Google Scholar
Nicholson, I. S. & Gould, J. E. (1995). Mirror mediated object discrimination and self-directed behavior in a female gorilla. Primates, 36, 515–521.Google Scholar
Parker, S. T. (1994). Incipient Mirror Self-Recognition in Zoo Gorillas and Chimpanzees. In Parker, S. T., Mitchell, R. W., & Boccia, M. L. (Eds.), Self-Awareness in Animals and Humans: Developmental Perspectives (pp. 301–307). New York: Cambridge University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Parker, S. T. & Gibson, K. (1977). Object manipulation, tool use, and sensorimotor intelligence as feeding adaptations in Cebus monkeys and great apes. Journal of Human Evolution, 6, 623–641.Google Scholar
Patterson, F. (1978). Conversations with a gorilla. National Geographic, 154, 438–465.Google Scholar
Patterson, F. G. P. & Cohn, R. H. (1994). Self-Recognition and Self-Awareness in Lowland Gorillas. In Parker, S. T., Mitchell, R. W., & Boccia, M. L. (Eds.), Self-Awareness in Animals and Humans: Developmental Perspectives (pp. 273–290). New York: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Paukner, A., Anderson, J. R., & Fujita, K. (2004). Reactions of capuchin monkeys (Cebus apella) to multiple mirrors. Behavioural Processes, 66, 1–6.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Platt, M. M. & Thompson, R. L. (1985). Mirror responses in a Japanese macaque troop (Arashiyama West). Primates, 26, 300–314.Google Scholar
Posada, S. & Colell, M. (2005). Mirror responses in a group of Miopithecus talapoin. Primates, 46, 165–172.Google Scholar
Posada, S. & Colell, M. (2007). Another gorilla (Gorilla gorilla gorilla) recognizes himself in a mirror. American Journal of Primatology, 69, 576–583.Google Scholar
Povinelli, D. J. (1994). How to Create Self-Recognizing Gorillas (But Don’t Try It on Macaques). In Parker, S. T., Mitchell, R. W., & Boccia, M. L. (Eds.), Self-Awareness in Animals and Humans: Developmental Perspectives (pp. 291–300). New York: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Povinelli, D. J., Rulf, A. B., Landau, K. R., & Bierschwale, D. T. (1993). Self-recognition in chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes): Distribution, ontogeny, and patterns of emergence. Journal of Comparative Psychology, 107, 347–372.Google Scholar
Povinelli, D. J. & Cant, J. G. H. (1995). Arboreal clambering and the evolution of self-conception. Quarterly Review of Biology, 70, 393–421.Google Scholar
Povinelli, D. J., Gallup, G. G. Jr., Eddy, T. J., Bierschwale, D. T., Engstrom, M. C., Perilloux, H. K., & Toxopeus, I. B. (1997). Chimpanzees recognize themselves in mirrors. Animal Behaviour, 53, 1083–1088.Google Scholar
Premack, D. & Woodruff, G. (1978). Does the chimpanzee have a theory of mind? Behavioral and Brain Sciences, 4, 515–526.Google Scholar
Rajala, A. Z., Reininger, K. R., Lancaster, K. M., & Populin, L. C. (2010). Rhesus monkeys (Macaca mulatta) do recognize themselves in the mirror: Implications for the evolution of self-recognition. PLoS One, 5(9), e12865. doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0012865Google Scholar
Reiss, D. & Morrison, R. (2017). Reflecting on Mirror Self-Recognition: A Comparative View. In Call, J., Burghardt, G. M., Pepperberg, I. M., Snowdon, C. T., & Zentall, T. (Eds.), APA Handbook of Comparative Psychology, Vol. 3: Perception, Learning, and Cognition, Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.Google Scholar
Riviello, M. C., Visalberghi, E., & Blasetti, A. (1993). Individual differences in responses toward a mirror by captive tufted capuchin monkeys (Cebus apella). Hystrix (n.s.), 4, 35–44.Google Scholar
Robert, S. (1986). Ontogeny of mirror behavior in two species of great apes. American Journal of Primatology, 10, 109–117.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Roma, P. G., Silberberg, A., Huntsberry, M. E., Christensen, C. J, Ruggerio, A. M., & Suomi, S. J. (2007). Mark tests for self-recognition in capuchin monkeys (Cebus apella) trained to touch marks. American Journal of Primatology, 69, 989–1000.Google Scholar
Shillito, D. J., Gallup, G. G. Jr., & Beck, B. B. (1999). Factors affecting mirror behavior in western lowland gorillas, Gorilla gorilla. Animal Behaviour, 57, 999–1004.Google Scholar
Shoreland, G., Genty, E., Guéry, JP, & Zuberbühler, K. (2020). Investigating self-recognition in bonobos: mirror exposure reduces looking time to self but not unfamiliar conspecifics. PeerJ 8:e9685 http://doi.org/10.7717/peerj.9685Google Scholar
Shumaker, R. W. & Swartz, K. B. (2002). When Traditional Methodologies Fail: Cognitive Studies of Great Apes. In Bekoff, M., Allen, C., & Burghardt, G. M. (Eds.), The Cognitive Animal: Empirical and Theoretical Perspectives on Animal Cognition (pp. 335–345). Cambridge, MA: The MIT Press.Google Scholar
Stevenson-Hinde, J., Stillwell-Barnes, R., & Zunz, M. (1980). Individual differences in young rhesus monkeys: Consistency and change. Primates, 21, 498–509.Google Scholar
Straumann, C. & Anderson, J. R. (1991). Mirror-induced social facilitation in stumptailed macaques (Macaca arctoides). American Journal of Primatology, 25, 125–132.Google Scholar
Suarez, S. D. & Gallup, G. G. Jr. (1981). Self-recognition in chimpanzees and orangutans, but not gorillas. Journal of Human Evolution, 10, 157–188.Google Scholar
Suarez, S. D. & Gallup, G. G. Jr. (1986 ). Social responding to mirrors in rhesus macaques (Macaca mulatta): Effects of changing mirror location. American Journal of Primatology, 11, 239–244.Google Scholar
Suddendorf, T. & Collier-Baker, E. (2009). The evolution of primate visual self-recognition: Evidence of absence in lesser apes. Proceedings of the Royal Society B. https://doi.org/10.1098/rspb.2008.1754CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Swartz, K. B. & Evans, S. (1991). Not all chimpanzees show self-recognition. Primates, 32, 483–496.Google Scholar
Swartz, K. B. & Evans, S. (1994). Social and Cognitive Factors in Chimpanzee and Gorilla Mirror Behavior and Self-Recognition. In Parker, S. T., Mitchell, R. W., & Boccia, M. L. (Eds.), Self-Awareness in Animals And Humans: Developmental Perspectives (pp. 189–206). New York: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Temerlin, M. K. (1975). Lucy: Growing up Human. New York: Bantam.Google Scholar
Terrace, H. S. (1979). Nim. London: Eyre Methuen.Google Scholar
Thompson, R. L. & Boatwright-Horowitz, S. L. (1994). The Question of Mirror-Mediated Self-Recognition in Apes and Monkeys: Some New Results and Reservations. In Parker, S. T., Mitchell, R. W., & Boccia, M. L. (Eds.), Self-Awareness in Animals and Humans: Developmental Perspectives (pp. 330–360). New York: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Ujhelyi, M., Merker, B., Buk, P., & Geissman, T. (2000). Observations on the behavior of gibbons (Hylobates leucogenys, H. gabriellae, and H. Lar) in the presence of mirrors. Journal of Comparative Psychology, 114, 253–262.Google Scholar
de Veer, M. W., Gallup, G. G. Jr, Theall, L. S., van den Bos, R., & Povinelli, D. J. (2003). An 8-year longitudinal study of mirror self-recognition in chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes). Neuropsychologia, 41, 229–234.Google Scholar
de Waal, F. B. M., Dindo, M., Freeman, C. A., & Hall, M. J. (2005. The monkey in the mirror: Hardly a stranger. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences USA, 102, 11140–11147.Google Scholar
Walraven, V., van Elsacker, L., & Verheyen, R. (1995). Reactions of a group of pygmy chimpanzees (Pan paniscus) to their mirror-images: Evidence of self-recognition. Primates, 36, 145–150.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Westergaard, G. C. & Fragaszy, D. M. (1987). The manufacture and use of tools by capuchin monkeys (Cebus apella). Journal of Comparative Psychology, 101, 159–168.Google Scholar
Westergaard, G. C. & Hyatt, C. W. (1994). The responses of bonobos (Pan paniscus) to their mirror images: Evidence of self-recognition. Human Evolution, 9, 273–279.Google Scholar
Westergaard, G. C. & Suomi, S. J. (1995). Mirror inspection varies with age and tool-using ability in tufted capuchin monkeys (Cebus apella). Human Evolution, 10, 217–223.Google Scholar
Yerkes, R. M. & Yerkes, A. W. (1929). The Great Apes: A Study of Anthropoid Life. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press.Google Scholar
Zumpe, D. & Michael, R. P. (1978). Interrelationships between Aggression and Sexuality in Rhesus Monkeys: Relevance of the Primate Model. In Levi, L. (Ed.), Society, Stress, and Disease, Vol. 3: The Productive and Reproductive Age (pp. 30–41). Oxford: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar

Save book to Kindle

To save this book to your Kindle, first ensure [email protected] is added to your Approved Personal Document E-mail List under your Personal Document Settings on the Manage Your Content and Devices page of your Amazon account. Then enter the ‘name’ part of your Kindle email address below. Find out more about saving to your Kindle.

Note you can select to save to either the @free.kindle.com or @kindle.com variations. ‘@free.kindle.com’ emails are free but can only be saved to your device when it is connected to wi-fi. ‘@kindle.com’ emails can be delivered even when you are not connected to wi-fi, but note that service fees apply.

Find out more about the Kindle Personal Document Service.

Available formats
×

Save book to Dropbox

To save content items to your account, please confirm that you agree to abide by our usage policies. If this is the first time you use this feature, you will be asked to authorise Cambridge Core to connect with your account. Find out more about saving content to Dropbox.

Available formats
×

Save book to Google Drive

To save content items to your account, please confirm that you agree to abide by our usage policies. If this is the first time you use this feature, you will be asked to authorise Cambridge Core to connect with your account. Find out more about saving content to Google Drive.

Available formats
×