Geographical conditions

A glance at the topographical and meteorological characteristics of the Iberian Peninsula is the first prerequisite of the study of Spanish economic history. The contrasts of terrain, climate, soil, and other physical features for a country occupying less than 200,000 square miles are uncommonly sharp. From the lofty Pyrenees, which fall a little short of preventing land communication with France, to the Sierra Nevada in the south, high altitudes prevail, the mean elevation of Spain exceeding that of any European country except Switzerland. Most of the interior forms a high, rugged plateau (meseta) broken by numerous mountain chains. Access to the Biscayan coast is blocked by the Cantabrian Cordillera extending from the Pyrenees to the westernmost coast of Galicia. Similarly, the highlands of Aragon impede communication between Castile and the Mediterranean, except through the valley of the Ebro.

Between the mountain ranges, which generally run from east to west, lie the valleys of the five principal rivers. The Guadalquivir has always been navigable as far as Seville, and the Ebro carried some commerce in the Middle Ages; as a rule, however, the river currents are too swift and the rainfall too uncertain for the development of inland waterways. Leaving the arid meseta, one may descend easily to the fertile Andalusian plain where fairly abundant moisture is counterbalanced by intense summer heat. Rainfall in the north and west is abundant, Santiago's mean annual precipitation of over 64 inches being the maximum for Spain; on the other hand, parts of the south-east have an annual rainfall of less than 8 inches. Generally, the Mediterranean regions enjoy an equable climate, but the Castilian meseta and the uplands of Aragon are very cold in winter and extremely hot in summer.