The perspective on late polytheism offered in the last two chapters has been primarily that of the individual. But individuals all organized themselves into groups as well: whether families at the graveside of a relative, villagers celebrating the harvest festival, Isiac initiates lending each other a helping hand in cities across the empire, or philosophers gathering round a revered teacher to study. These group identities, transitory or more enduring, were consecrated by the invocation and presence of particular gods. And the sum total of all these individuals, amidst their shifting group allegiances, was Rome's empire. To the empire's public cults as well, individuals were expected to pledge themselves, to strengthen and in turn be strengthened. It is time now to make a more consistent use of this public perspective, both at the centre and in the provinces.

THE ROLE OF THE EMPORER

As the incarnation of human power, the emperor had to be explained and accommodated no less than did the gods, and irrespective of whether one was polytheist, Jew or Christian. Hence the emergence of emperor-cult. Although during their lifetime the emperor and his family were ‘divine’ (divi) rather than ‘gods’ (dei), their statues were everenced in conspicuous sanctuaries in even the smallest provincial cities, and they were depicted in the company and often within the very temples of the gods. Rulers might also claim to be specially guarded by certain powerful deities, or be assimilated to them by being represented with their attributes. The Severans out did their forerunners in this respect, and Julia Domna's surviving portraits assimilate her to at least ten different goddesses.