Skip to main content Accessibility help

We use cookies to distinguish you from other users and to provide you with a better experience on our websites. Close this message to accept cookies or find out how to manage your cookie settings.

Close cookie message
×
Hostname: page-component-745bb68f8f-d8cs5 Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2025-02-11T07:30:31.561Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false

Chapter 6 - Invasive plants and invaded ecosystems in Australia: implications for biodiversity

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  05 November 2014

By
Rachael V. Gallagher  and
Michelle R. Leishman
Edited by
Adam Stow ,
Norman Maclean  and
Gregory I. Holwell
Rachael V. Gallagher
Affiliation:
Macquarie University
Michelle R. Leishman
Affiliation:
Macquarie University
Adam Stow
Affiliation:
Macquarie University, Sydney
Norman Maclean
Affiliation:
University of Southampton
Gregory I. Holwell
Affiliation:
University of Auckland
Get access

Summary

Summary

Exotic, invasive plants are a major cause of environmental degradation throughout Australia, affecting most ecosystems and vegetation types. Here, we investigate the origins of Australia’s exotic plant flora, assess their economic and ecological impact and discuss the processes by which these species become successful invaders. Various management strategies and legislative measures designed to minimise the impact of weeds on native biodiversity are also examined. Most exotic invaders have been deliberately introduced to the Australian landscape via two main pathways – horticulture and agriculture – and many are taxonomically distinct, with no native Australian relatives. Following their introduction a proportion of these species have become naturalised, forming self-sustaining populations in the landscape. Approximately 10% of this naturalised pool of species have gone on to become serious invaders, capable of displacing native vegetation. We discuss the competing theories about how species make the transition along the ‘invasion continuum’, including the role of functional traits, introduction effort, propagule pressure, residence time and community susceptibility to invasion. We also consider the major functional types of exotic invaders (e.g. woody weeds, vines and scramblers, perennial grasses) and discuss the impacts and management challenges unique to each.

Which exotic plants are in Australia and how did they get there?

Invasion by exotic plant species is recognised globally as one of the greatest threats to biodiversity (Millennium Ecosystem Assessment, 2005). This is equally true in Australia where exotic plants across a wide range of habitats significantly reduce native species abundance and diversity, contributing to extinction risk. Australia is particularly vulnerable to invasion by introduced plants due to its isolation and consequent unique biota, and few ecosystems in Australia are immune from invasion (Adair & Groves, 1998; Groves et al., 2005).

Type
Chapter
Information
Austral Ark
The State of Wildlife in Australia and New Zealand
 , pp. 105 - 133
Publisher: Cambridge University Press
Print publication year: 2014

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

Adair, R. J. & Groves, R. H. (1998). Impact of Environmental Weeds on Biodiversity: a Review and Development of a Methodology. Canberra: Commonwealth of Australia.Google Scholar
Ainsworth, E. A. & Long, S. P. (2005). What have we learned from 15 years of free-air CO2 enrichment (FACE)? A meta-analytic review of the responses of photosynthesis, canopy properties and plant production to rising CO2, New Phytologist, 165: 351–372.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Alvarez, M. E. & Cushman, J. H. (2002). Community-level consequences of a plant invasion: effects on three habitats in coastal California, Ecological Applications, 12: 1434–1444.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
AWC – Australian Weeds Committee (2012). Weeds of National Significance 2012. Canberra: Department of Agriculture, Fisheries and Forestry.Google Scholar
Bateman, I. J., Mace, G. M., Fezzi, C., Atkinson, G. & Turner, K. (2011). Economic analysis for ecosystem service assessments, Environmental and Resource Economics, 48: 177–218.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Batianoff, G. N. and Butler, D. W. (2004). Impact assessment and analysis of sixty-six priority invasive weeds in south-east Queensland, Plant Protection Quarterly, 18: 11–17.Google Scholar
Belote, R. T., Weltzin, J. F. & Norby, R. J. (2004). Response of an understory plant community to elevated [CO2] depends on differential responses of dominant invasive species and is mediated by soil water availability, New Phytologist, 161: 827–835.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Birnbaum, C., Barrett, L. G., Thrall, P. H. & Leishman, M. R. (2012). Mutualisms are not constraining cross-continental invasion success of Acacia species within Australia, Diversity and Distributions, 18: 962–976.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Brooks, K. J., Setterfield, S. A. & Douglas, M. M. (2010). Exotic grass invasions: applying a conceptual framework to the dynamics of degradation and restoration in Australia’s tropical savannas, Restoration Ecology, 18: 188–197.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Buckley, Y. M., Anderson, S., Catterall, C. P. et al. (2006). Management of plant invasions mediated by frugivore interactions, Journal of Applied Ecology, 43: 848–857.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Caley, P., Groves, R. H. & Barker, R. (2008). Estimating the invasion success of introduced plants, Diversity and Distributions, 14: 196–203.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Castro, S. A., Figueroa, J. A., Muñoz-Schick, M. & Jaksic, F. M. (2005). Minimum residence time, biogeographical origin, and life cycle as determinants of the geographical extent of naturalized plants in continental Chile, Diversity and Distributions, 11: 183–191.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Champion, P. D., Clayton, J. S. & Hofstra, D. E. (2010). Nipping aquatic plant invasions in the bud: weed risk assessment and the trade, Hydrobiologia, 656: 167–172.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
CSIRO (Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research Organisation) (2011). Climate Change: Science and Solutions for Australia. Melbourne: CSIRO Publishing.Google Scholar
Cook, G. D. & Dias, L. (2006). Turner Review No. 12. It was no accident: deliberate plant introductions by Australian government agencies during the 20th century, Australian Journal of Botany, 54: 601–625.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Coutts-Smith, A. J. & Downey, P. O. (2006) The Impact of Weeds on Threatened Biodiversity in New South Wales. Technical Series No. 11, Adelaide: Cooperative Research Centre for Australian Weed Management.Google Scholar
Csurshes, S. (2008). Pest Plant Risk Assessment – Nassella tenuissimaMexican Feather Grass. Brisbane: The State of Queensland, Department of Primary Industries and Fisheries.Google Scholar
Cuneo, P. & Leishman, M. R. (2012) Ecological impacts of invasive African olive (Olea europaea ssp. cuspidata) in Cumberland Plain Woodland, Sydney, Australia, Austral Ecology, 38: 103–110CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Cuneo, P., Offord, C. A. & Leishman, M. R. (2010). Seed ecology of the invasive woody plant African Olive (Olea europaea subsp. cuspidata): implications for management and restoration, Australian Journal of Botany, 58: 342–348.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Curtis, P. S. & Wang, X. (1998). A meta-analysis of elevated CO2 effects on woody plant mass, form, and physiology, Oecologia, 113: 299–313.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
D’Antonio, C. M. & Vitousek, P. M. (1992). Biological invasions by exotic grasses, the grass/fire cycle, and global change, Annual Review of Ecology and Systematics, 23: 63–87.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Davis, M. A., Grime, J. P. & Thompson, K. (2001). Fluctuating resources in plant communities: a general theory of invisibility, Journal of Ecology, 88: 528–534.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
DECC – Department of Environment and Climate Change, NSW (2007). Lord Howe Island Biodiversity Management Plan. Sydney: Department of Environment and Climate Change (NSW).Google Scholar
Downey, P. & Turnbull, I. (2007). The biology of Australian weeds. 48. Macfadyena unguis-cati (L.) AH Gentry, Plant Protection Quarterly, 22: 82–85.Google Scholar
Elton, C. S. (1958). The Ecology of Invasions by Animals and Plants. London: Methuen.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Firth, D. & Ensbey, R. (2009). Primefact 733: Camphor Laurel. Sydney: State of New South Wales through Department of Industry and Investment (Industry & Investment NSW).Google Scholar
Franks, A. J. (2002). The ecological consequences of Buffel Grass Cenchrus ciliaris establishment within remnant vegetation of Queensland, Pacific Conservation Biology, 8: 99–107.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Gaertner, M., Breeyen, A. D., Hui, C. & Richardson, D. M. (2009). Impacts of alien plant invasions on species richness in mediterranean-type ecosystems: a meta-analysis, Progress in Physical Geography, 33: 319–338.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Gallagher, R. V., Hughes, L., Leishman, M. R. & Wilson, P. (2010). Predicted impact of exotic vines on an endangered ecological community under future climate change, Biological Invasions, 12: 4049–4063.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Gallagher, R. V., Leishman, M. R., Miller, J. T. et al. (2011). Invasiveness in introduced Australian acacias: the role of species traits and genome size, Diversity and Distributions, 17: 884–897.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Gallagher, R. V., Englert Duursma, D., O’Donnell, J. et al. (2012). The grass may not always be greener: projected reductions in climatic suitability for exotic grasses under future climates in Australia, Biological Invasions, 15: 961–975.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Gordon, D. R., Onderdonk, D. A., Fox, A. M. & Stocker, R. K. (2008). Consistent accuracy of the Australian weed risk assessment system across varied geographies, Diversity and Distributions, 14: 234–242.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Gosper, C. R. & Vivian-Smith, G. (2010). Fruit traits of vertebrate-dispersed alien plants: smaller seeds and more pulp sugar than indigenous species, Biological Invasions, 12: 2153–2163.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Gosper, C. R., Stansbury, C. D. & Vivian-Smith, G. (2005). Seed dispersal of fleshy-fruited invasive plants by birds: contributing factors and management options,Diversity and Distributions, 11: 549–558.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Griffin, A. R., Midgley, S. J., Bush, D., Cunningham, P. J. & Rinaudo, A. T. (2011). Global uses of Australian acacias – recent trends and future prospects, Diversity and Distributions, 17: 837–847.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Groves, R. & Willis, A. (1999). Environmental weeds and loss of native plant biodiversity: some Australian examples, Australian Journal of Environmental Management, 6: 164–171.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Groves, R. H. & Hosking, J. R. (1998). Recent Incursions of Weeds to Australia 1971–1995. Adelaide: Cooperative Research Centre for Australian Weed Management.Google Scholar
Groves, R. H., Lonsdale, M. & Boden, R. (2005). Jumping the Garden Fence: Invasive Garden Plants in Australia and their Environmental and Agricultural Impacts. Canberra: WWF-Australia.Google Scholar
Hamilton, M. A., Murray, B. R., Cadotte, M. W. et al. (2005). Life-history correlates of plant invasiveness at regional and continental scales, Ecology Letters, 8: 1066–1074.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hardesty, B. D., Metcalfe, S. S. & Westcott, D. A. (2011). Persistence and spread in a new landscape: Dispersal ecology and genetics of Miconia invasions in Australia, Acta Oecologica, 37: 657–665.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Harris, C. J., Murray, B. R., Hose, G. C. & Hamilton, M. A. (2007). Introduction history and invasion success in exotic vines introduced to Australia, Diversity and Distributions, 13: 467–475.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Harris, C. J., Dormontt, E. E., Le Roux, J. J., Lowe, A. & Leishman, M. R. (2012). No consistent association between changes in genetic diversity and adaptive responses of Australian acacias in novel ranges, Evolutionary Ecology, 26: 1345–1360.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hattenschwiler, S. & Korner, C. (2003). Does elevated CO2 facilitate naturalization of the non-indigenous Prunus laurocerasus in Swiss temperate forests?, Functional Ecology, 17: 778–785.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hejda, M., Pyšek, P. & Jarošík, V. (2009). Impact of invasive plants on the species richness, diversity and composition of invaded communities, Journal of Ecology, 97: 393–403.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hoddle, M. S. (2004). Restoring balance: using exotic species to control invasive exotic species, Conservation Biology, 18: 38–49.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Holmes, P. M. & Cowling, R. M. (1997). The effects of invasion by Acacia saligna on the guild structure and regeneration capabilities of South African fynbos shrublands, Journal of Applied Ecology, 34: 317–332.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hutley, L. B. & Setterfield, S. A. (2008). Savannas. In Encyclopedia of Ecology, Amsterdam: Elsevier, Ed. Jørgensen, S. E. and Fath, B., pp. 3143–3154.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hutton, I. (2003). Management for Birds on Lord Howe Island. Sydney: Department of Environment and Conservation.Google Scholar
Huxman, T. E. & Smith, S. D. (2001). Photosynthesis in an invasive grass and native forb at elevated CO2 during an El Nino year in the Mojave Desert, Oecologia, 128: 193–201.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
IPCC (2007). Climate Change 2007: The Physical Science Basis. Contribution of Working Group I to the Fourth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Jackson, J. (2005). Is there a relationship between herbaceous species richness and buffel grass (Cenchrus ciliaris)?, Austral Ecology, 30: 505–517.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Lake, J. & Leishman, M. R. (2004). Invasion success of exotic plants in natural ecosystems: the role of disturbance, plant attributes and freedom from herbivores, Biological Conservation, 117: 215–226.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Leishman, M. (1990). Suburban development and resultant changes in the phosphorus status of soils in the area of Ku-ring-gai, Sydney, Proceedings of the Linnean Society NSW, 112: 15–25.Google Scholar
Leishman, M. R. & Thomson, V. P. (2005). Experimental evidence for the effects of additional water, nutrients and physical disturbance on invasive plants in low fertility Hawkesbury Sandstone soils, Sydney, Australia, Journal of Ecology, 93: 38–49.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Leishman, M. R., Haslehurst, T., Ares, A. & Baruch, Z. (2007). Leaf trait relationships of native and invasive plants: community- and global-scale comparisons, New Phytologist, 176: 635–643.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Leishman, M. R., Hughes, M. T. & Gore, D. B. (2004). Soil phosphorus enhancement below stormwater outlets in urban bushland: spatial and temporal changes and the relationship with invasive plants, Australian Journal of Soil Research, 42: 197–202.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Le Roux, J. J., Geerts, S., Ivey, P. et al. (2010). Molecular systematics and ecology of invasive Kangaroo Paws in South Africa: management implications for a horticulturally important genus, Biological Invasions, 12: 3989–4002.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Levine, J. M. (2000). Species diversity and biological invasions: relating local process to community pattern, Science, 288: 852–854.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Lonsdale, W. M. (1992). The biology of Mimosa pigra. In Guide to the Management of Mimosa pigra: prepared for an international workshop held at Darwin, Australia, Darwin, pp. 11–15.Google Scholar
Lonsdale, W. M. (1993). Rates of spread of an invading species – Mimosa pigra in Northern Australia, Journal of Ecology, 81: 513–521.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Lonsdale, W. M. (1994). Inviting trouble: introduced pasture species in northern Australia, Australian Journal of Ecology, 19: 345–354.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Lonsdale, W. M. (1999). Global patterns of plant invasions and the concept of invisibility, Ecology, 80: 1522–1536.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
McFadyen, R. E. C. (1998). Biological control of weeds, Annual Review of Entomology, 43: 369–393.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
McKinney, M. L. & Lockwood, J. L. (1999). Biotic homogenization: a few winners replacing many losers in the next mass extinction, Trends in Ecology & Evolution, 14: 450–453.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Manea, A. & Leishman, M. R. (2011). Competitive interactions between native and invasive exotic plant species are altered under elevated carbon dioxide, Oecologia, 165: 735–744.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Millennium Ecosystem Assessment (2005). Ecosystems and Human Well-being: Biodiversity Synthesis. Washington: World Resources Institute.Google Scholar
Murphy, H. T., Hardesty, B. D., Fletcher, C. S. et al. (2008). Predicting dispersal and recruitment of Miconia calvescens (Melastomataceae) in Australian tropical rainforests, Biological Invasions, 10: 925–936.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Naeem, S., Knops, J. M. H., Tilman, D. et al. (2000). Plant diversity increases resistance to invasion in the absence of covarying extrinsic factors, Oikos, 91: 97–108.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Nagel, J. M., Huxman, T. E., Griffin, K. L. & Smith, S. D. (2004). CO2 enrichment reduces the energetic cost of biomass construction in an invasive desert grass, Ecology, 85: 100–106.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Neilan, W., Catterall, C. P., Kanowski, J. & McKenna, S. (2006). Do frugivorous birds assist rainforest succession in weed dominated oldfield regrowth of subtropical Australia?, Biological Conservation, 129: 393–407.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
NRMMC – Natural Resource Management Ministerial Committee (2006). Australian Weeds Strategy: a National Strategy for Weed Management in Australia. Canberra: Commonwealth of Australia.Google Scholar
Oram, R. N. (1990) Register of Australian Herbage Plant Cultivars, 3rd edn. Melbourne: CSIRO Publishing.Google Scholar
O’Donnell, J., Gallagher, R. V., Wilson, P. D et al., (2012). Invasion hotspots for non-native plants in Australia under current and future climates, Global Change Biology, 18: 617–629.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Paul, M., Catterall, C. P., Pollard, P. C. & Kanowski, J. (2010a). Does soil variation between rainforest, pasture and different reforestation pathways affect the early growth of rainforest pioneer species?, Forest Ecology and Management, 260: 370–377.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Paul, M., Catterall, C. P., Pollard, P. C. & Kanowski, J. (2010b). Recovery of soil properties and functions in different rainforest restoration pathways, Forest Ecology and Management, 259: 2083–2092.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Paul, M., Catterall, C. P., Kanowski, J. & Pollard, P. C. (2012). Recovery of rain forest soil seed banks under different reforestation pathways in eastern Australia, Ecological Management and Restoration, 13: 144–152.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Perna, C. & Burrows, D. (2005). Improved dissolved oxygen status following removal of exotic weed mats in important fish habitat lagoons of the tropical Burdekin River floodplain, Australia, Marine Pollution Bulletin, 51: 138–148.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Petroeschevsky, A. & Champion, P. D. (2008). Preventing further introduction and spread of aquatic weeds through the ornamental plant trade. In Sixteenth Australian Weed Conference, Cairns, pp. 200–302.
Pheloung, P. (1995). Determining the Weed Potential of New Plant Introductions to Australia. Perth: WA Department of Agriculture.Google Scholar
Pysek, P. & Jarosík, V. (2005). Residence time determines the distribution of alien plants. In Invasive Plants: Ecological and Agricultural Aspects. Basel, ED: Inderjit, S., pp. 77–96.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Randall, R. P. (2007). The Introduced Flora of Australia and its Weed Status. Adelaide: Cooperative Research Centre for Australian Weed Management.Google Scholar
Richardson, D. M. & Pyšek, P. (2012). Naturalization of introduced plants: ecological drivers of biogeographical patterns, New Phytologist, 196: 383–396.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Richardson, D. M., Pyšek, P., Rejmánek, M. et al. (2000). Naturalization and invasion of alien plants: Concepts and definitions, Diversity and Distributions, 6: 93–107.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Richardson, D. M. & Rejmánek, M. (2011). Trees and shrubs as invasive alien species – a global review, Diversity and Distributions, 17: 788–809.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Rodríguez-Echeverría, S., Crisóstomo, J. A., Nabais, C. & Freitas, H. (2009). Belowground mutualists and the invasive ability of Acacia longifolia in coastal dunes of Portugal, Biological Invasions, 11: 651–661.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Rossiter, N. A., Setterfield, S. A., Douglas, M. M. & Hutley, L. B. (2003). Testing the grass-fire cycle: alien grass invasion in the tropical savannas of northern Australia, Diversity and Distributions, 9: 169–176.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Ruiz-Avila, R. J. & Klemm, V. V. (1996). Management of Hydrocotyle ranunculoides L.f., an aquatic invasive weed of urban waterways in Western Australia, Hydrobiologia, 340: 187–190.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Sasek, T. W. & Strain, B. R. (1988). Effects of carbon dioxide enrichment on the growth and morphology of kudzu (Pueraria lobata), Weed Science, 1: 28–36.Google Scholar
Schooler, S., Julien, M. & Walsh, G. C. (2006). Predicting the response of Cabomba caroliniana populations to biological control agent damage, Australian Journal of Entomology, 45: 327–330.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Schooler, S. S., Salau, B., Julien, M. H. & Ives, A. R. (2011). Alternative stable states explain unpredictable biological control of Salvinia molesta in Kakadu, Nature, 470: 86–89.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Serbesoff-King, K. (2003). Melaleuca in Florida: a literature review on the taxonomy, distribution, biology, ecology, economic importance and control measures, Journal of Aquatic Plant Management, 41: 98–111.Google Scholar
Setterfield, S. A., Rossiter-Rachor, N. A., Hutley, L. B., Douglas, M. M. & Williams, R. J. (2010). Turning up the heat: the impacts of Andropogon gayanus (gamba grass) invasion on fire behaviour in northern Australian savannas, Diversity and Distributions, 16: 854–861.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Sinden, J., Jones, R., Hesterba, S. et al. (2004). The Economic Impact of Weeds in Australia. A Report to the CRC for Australian Weed Management. Adelaide: Cooperative Research Centre for Australian Weed Management.Google Scholar
Smith, S. D., Huxman, T. E., Zitzer, S. F. et al. (2000). Elevated CO2 increases productivity and invasive species success in an arid ecosystem, Nature, 408: 79–82.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Stephens, C. J., Facelli, J. M. & Austin, A. D. (2008). The impact of bridal creeper (Asparagus asparagoides) on native ground-cover plant diversity and habitat structure, Plant Protection Quarterly, 23: 136–143.Google Scholar
Stohlgren, T. J., Binkley, D., Chong, G. W. et al. (1999). Exotic plant species invade hot spots of native plant diversity, Ecological Monographs, 69: 25–46.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Stokes, K. E. & Cunningham, S. A. (2006). Predictors of recruitment for willows invading riparian environments in south-east Australia: implications for weed management, Journal of Applied Ecology, 43: 909–921.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Sullivan, P. R., Postle, L. A. & Julien, M. (2011). Biological control of Salvinia molesta by Cyrtobagous salviniae in temperate Australia, Biological Control, 57: 222–228.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Thomson, V. P. & Leishman, M. R. (2004). Survival of native plants of Hawkesbury Sandstone communities with additional nutrients: effect of plant age and habitat, Australian Journal of Botany, 52: 141–147.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Tilman, D. (1999). The ecological consequences of changes in biodiversity: a search for general principles, Ecology, 80: 1455–1474.Google Scholar
Turner, P. J., Scott, J. K. & Spafford, H. (2008). The ecological barriers to the recovery of bridal creeper (Asparagus asparagoides (L.) Druce) infested sites: impacts on vegetation and the potential increase in other exotic species, Austral Ecology, 33: 713–722.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Turner, P. J., Morin, L., Williams, D. G. & Kriticos, D. J. (2010). Interactions between a leafhopper and rust fungus on the invasive plant Asparagus asparagoides in Australia: a case of two agents being better than one for biological control, Biological Control, 54: 322–330.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
van Kleunen, M., Weber, E., & Fischer, M. (2009). A meta-analysis of trait differences between invasive and non-invasive plant species, Ecology Letters, 13: 235–245.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
van Klinken, R. D., Lawson, B. E. & Zalucki, M. P. (2009). Predicting invasions in Australia by a neotropical shrub under climate change: the challenge of novel climates and parameter estimation, Global Ecology and Biogeography, 18: 688–700.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Vilà, M., Espinar, J. L., Hejda, M. et al. (2011). Ecological impacts of invasive alien plants: a meta-analysis of their effects on species, communities and ecosystems, Ecology Letters, 14: 702–708.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Weerheim, M. S., Klomp, N. I., Brunsting, A. M. & Komdeur, J. (2003). Population size, breeding habitat and nest site distribution of little penguins (Eudyptula minor) on Montague Island, New South Wales, Wildlife Research, 30: 151–157.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Weltzin, J. F., Belote, R. T. & Sanders, N. J. (2003). Biological invaders in a greenhouse world: will elevated CO2 fuel plant invasions?, Frontiers in Ecology and the Environment, 1: 146–153.Google Scholar
White, E. & Vivian-Smith, G. (2011). Contagious dispersal of seeds of synchronously fruiting species beneath invasive and native fleshy-fruited trees, Austral Ecology, 36: 195–202.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Williams, A. L., Wills, K. E., Janes, J. K. et al. (2007). Warming and free-air CO2 enrichment alter demographics in four co-occurring grassland species, New Phytologist, 176: 365–374.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Williamson, M. & Fitter, A. (1996). The varying success of invaders, Ecology, 77: 1661–1666.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Willis, A. J., McKay, R., Vranjic, J. A., Kilby, M. J. & Groves, R. H. (2003). Comparative seed ecology of the endangered shrub, Pimelea spicata and a threatening weed, Bridal Creeper: smoke, heat and other fire-related germination cues, Ecological Management and Restoration, 4: 55–65.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Winkler, M. A., Cherry, H. & Downey, P. O. (2008). Bitou Bush Management Manual: Current Management and Control Options for Bitou Bush (Chrysanthemoides monilifera ssp. rotundata) in Australia. Sydney: Department of Environment and Climate Change (NSW).Google Scholar
Yurkonis, K. A. & Meiners, S. J. (2004). Invasion impacts local species turnover in a successional system, Ecology Letters, 7: 764–769.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Save book to Kindle

To save this book to your Kindle, first ensure [email protected] is added to your Approved Personal Document E-mail List under your Personal Document Settings on the Manage Your Content and Devices page of your Amazon account. Then enter the ‘name’ part of your Kindle email address below. Find out more about saving to your Kindle.

Note you can select to save to either the @free.kindle.com or @kindle.com variations. ‘@free.kindle.com’ emails are free but can only be saved to your device when it is connected to wi-fi. ‘@kindle.com’ emails can be delivered even when you are not connected to wi-fi, but note that service fees apply.

Find out more about the Kindle Personal Document Service.

Available formats
×

Save book to Dropbox

To save content items to your account, please confirm that you agree to abide by our usage policies. If this is the first time you use this feature, you will be asked to authorise Cambridge Core to connect with your account. Find out more about saving content to Dropbox.

Available formats
×

Save book to Google Drive

To save content items to your account, please confirm that you agree to abide by our usage policies. If this is the first time you use this feature, you will be asked to authorise Cambridge Core to connect with your account. Find out more about saving content to Google Drive.

Available formats
×