In January, 1649, James Butler, 1st Duke of Ormond, signed a treaty with the Catholic Confederacy, not knowing that the king on whose behalf he spoke was on trial in London. On January 30, 1649, Charles is executed, and a week later England became a republic, having a nonmonarchical form of government. A Council of State was created, and John Milton was appointed its “Secretary of Foreign Tongues.” The Council charged Milton to write observations on Ormond’s peace treaty and other recent documents from Ireland. The most geographically interesting reflection on Ireland to involve Milton’s work the resulting Articles of Peace offers a map of Ireland, a cultural and political geography overlaid on the ancient provinces of the island, to which Milton adds complicated interisland tensions, on the eve of Cromwell’s invasion of Ireland. Articles reflects the complexity of the situation in Ireland, ramified by English management: A Protestant Royalist signs an extraordinarily generous Peace Treaty with Irish Catholics; the Parliamentary representative in Dublin complains of English influence; the Ulster-Scots make the case for a Protestant Church in Ireland that is neither Anglican nor Episcopalian.

The medial lemniscus is a white matter tract in the brainstem that is made up of second-order somatosensory axons carrying touch, vibration, and proprioception. Sensory fibers carrying light touch, proprioception, and vibration are usually large and heavily myelinated. The first-order neurons are the pseudounipolar neurons in the dorsal root ganglia.

In the spring of 1957, the Weinbergs moved to New York for his job at Columbia University, where important experimental work had taken place throught the 1950s. He writes some (largely unimportant) papers on symmetry principles and weak interactions. His first encounter with Murray Gell-Mann gets off to a rocky start. Weinberg starts building a network of colleagues and friends. He misses the chance of tenure at Columbia, so rather than stay for another year as a postdoc, he decides to take up a research position at Berkeley. Before he leaves, he submits his paper on renormalization and infinities.

The basilar artery sits midline, on the ventral surface of the pons, and is formed by a combination of two vertebral arteries. As it reaches the rostral midbrain, it splits terminally into two posterior cerebral arteries. Small perforating arteries coming off the basilar artery supply blood to the pons.

Arachnoid mater is the middle meningeal layer between the dura and the pia mater. Its name is related to its web-like appearance and derived from the Greek word arakhne meaning “spider.”

Axial algebras are a class of non-associative commutative algebras whose properties are defined in terms of a fusion law. When this fusion law is graded, the algebra has a naturally associated group of automorphisms and thus axial algebras are inherently related to group theory. Examples include most Jordan algebras and the Griess algebra for the Monster sporadic simple group. In this survey, we introduce axial algebras, discuss their structural properties and then concentrate on two specific classes: algebras of Jordan and Monster type, which are rich in examples related to simple groups.

The C5 nerve root is contained within four of the five peripheral nerves that come from the brachial plexus (musculocutaneous, median, radial, and axillary, not ulnar). Its function is commonly tested during neurological exam by tapping the biceps tendon with a reflex hammer, which creates reflexive elbow flexion. The C5 dermatome is positioned on the superior and lateral shoulder.

Extending from the fourth ventricle down to the conus medullaris, the central canal of the spinal cord is a very narrow CSF space bordered on all sides by a single layer of columnar ependymal cells. Recall that the human central nervous system first develops in utero in a process known as neurulation, and during the fourth week of development, the caudal aspects of the neural plate and neural tube fold in on themselves and zipper shut, forming a neural canal which will eventually become the central canal. The neural tube, a single layer of columnar neuroepithelial cells, then differentiates into all neurons, oligodendroglia, and astroglia of the spinal cord before differentiating into that one layer of columnar cells that lines the central canal.

The trip first takes in Japan, then Hong Kong, and Singapore. In Singapore, he loses a case containing all of his notes, and learns to lecture without them. He visits some Indian institutes and then flies to Israel. After tourist stopovers in Istanbul and Athens, they arrive finally in London as guests of Abdus Salam. He begins work on a research project on bound states in strong forces, which leads nowhere. He gives invited talks throughout the UK. They spend some time in Italy before attending the Rochester Conference of 1962, in Geneva. Weinberg receives news that he has been promoted to associate professor. They return to New York via Lisbon, after 280 days away.

The hypoglossal nerve is a pure motor nerve with its nucleus located in the medial caudal medulla. The nerve exits from the medullary portion of the brainstem (bottom third) and travels through the hypoglossal canal (a hole that shares my name). It is commonly tested on neurological exam by asking patients to stick out their tongue and looking for deviation. Thus, if you are trying to catch a falling snowflake on your tongue, a lesion of CN XII will cause ipsilateral tongue deviation.

The cerebral cortex makes up the outer gray matter layer of the brain. The cortex itself has six layers, and the proportion of each of these layers differs based on the function and necessity of the area.

The occipital lobe sits on top of the tentorium cerebelli and is the most posteriorly located lobe of the brain. Because it contains the primary visual cortex, a lesion to one side causes contralateral homonymous hemianopia, thus lesion in the left results in right side blindness in both eyes. It also contains the calcarine (Latin: spur) sulcus (Latin: furrow).

The superior cerebellar artery (SCA) is the second most superior branch from the basilar artery, branching bilaterally just inferior to the origin of the posterior cerebral artery. From its origin at the basilar artery, the SCA first travels laterally, anterior to the pons in the prepontine cistern, passing inferior to the oculomotor nerve that separates it from the posterior cerebral artery. The SCA then curves posteriorly and travels through the ambient cistern, passing just inferior to the trochlear nerve before traveling posteromedially to the lateral edges of the quadrigeminal cistern, coming in close proximity to the contralateral SCA.

The obturator nerve originates from the anterior rami of L2–L4 through the lumbar plexus. It travels inferiorly into the pelvis medial to both the femoral nerve and psoas major muscle, exiting the pelvis just inferior to the pubic bone along with the obturator vessels via the obturator canal. The obturator nerve splits into two terminal branches, the anterior and posterior divisions of the obturator nerve, around the adductor brevis muscle as it exits the pelvis into the thigh. The anterior division ultimately provides motor innervation to adductor longus, adductor brevis, and gracilis, as well as sensory innervation to portions of the inner thigh and the hip joint.

The cerebral aqueduct is a canal that bridges the cerebrospinal fluid flow between the third and fourth ventricles of the brain. It is very narrow compared to these adjacent ventricles. Additionally, it is the only large major structure in the cerebrospinal fluid flow pathway that does not have choroid plexus. It is positioned just anterior to the quadrigeminal plate of the midbrain (made up of superior and inferior colliculi).

The nucleus ambiguus is the special visceral efferent nucleus for CN IX (glossopharyngeal nerve) and CN X (vagus nerve) that resides in the rostral lateral medulla just dorsal to the inferior olivary nucleus. It supplies motor fibers to the palate and pharynx and mediates the efferent arm of autonomic vagal output, increasing parasympathetic tone in the heart and gut. The name “nucleus ambiguus” refers to the fact that the nucleus is notoriously difficult to locate on dissection or imaging, and its location varies substantially across different species.