This chapter deals with the processes of conversion and Christianization as they are explored in Old Norse literature, focusing on skaldic verse composed in Norway and Iceland in the tenth and eleventh centuries. It begins by discussing the poetry of Hallfreðr Óttarsson vandræðaskáld as a representation of a poet’s experience of conversion, through looking at the poems Hallfreðr composed for the pagan Norwegian ruler Hákon jarl and the Christianizing king Óláfr Tryggvason. It then considers the prominent role played by skaldic verse in the conversion of Iceland, in which skaldic poems gave voice both to pagan resistance and to Christian attacks on the pagan gods. Finally, the chapter discusses how poets in eleventh-century Norway were able to adapt their verse to reorient it away from its associations with paganism, allowing them to praise the Christian king Óláfr Haraldsson while preserving the cultural value their art form had traditionally possessed.

THE CASE STUDIES collected here examine a variety of sources, focusing on different periods and covering a range of manuscripts and rare books; yet common themes emerge. The recurrence of the names of buyers and sellers in the different case studies underlines the extent to which prices were determined in the context of a relatively small network of people. In addition, the large volume of publicly declared prices, at auctions, in catalogues, and in newspapers, meant that it was possible for participants in the trade to be extremely well-informed. Dealers’ and collectors’ private records also allowed them to keep track of their own activity and provided points of comparison for future sales and purchases. Manuals provided guidance on how an individual book might be appraised, offering insights into contemporary values, but relationships between buyers and sellers could also influence prices.

It is an obvious point, but successful dealers sold books for profit. Most firms achieved this through a combination of acting on commission for collectors, offering books to clients (in a shop or by letter), and advertising through catalogues. J. & J. Leighton’s records demonstrate that the firm sold much of its stock within days or weeks, meaning that many books never appeared in a catalogue. Manuscripts that were included in catalogues, such as those by Jacques Rosenthal and Leo Olschki, were therefore slower to find a buyer, prompting consideration by the dealer about how to describe and price them and who to offer them to. Within this general model, firms operated in slightly different ways, apparently linked to the spending of their clients. Olschki’s average markup in 1910 was substantially higher than Leighton’s and Rahir’s in ca. 1905 and his success seems to have been linked to his ability to sell manuscripts to wealthy American clients for large profits. Yet to serve their different clients dealers traded with one another as well as buying books at auction. A book bought from Leighton by Olschki with a client in mind could therefore yield profits to both dealers.

From library and dealers’ records we can track books through different hands over time with great precision. Remarkably, some manuscripts reappear even in this set of case studies. As Hannah Morcos demonstrated, a manuscript bought at Sotheby’s by Leighton in 1901 was sold to Olschki, who sold it on to the Bibliothèque nationale.

This chapter examines the origin of the customary prohibition of the use of force between States and its relationship to article 2(4) of the UN Charter, focusing on the pre-UN Charter era. In doing so, it critically analyses two possibilities for the norm to have emerged prior to 1945: that it developed prior to the UN Charter and article 2(4) was declaratory of that pre-existing custom, or that article 2(4) crystallised a customary rule that was already in the process of formation. It rejects these two possibilities, arguing that article 2(4) was a significant legal development which went beyond the existing laws of the time in order to found a new international legal order in the aftermath of World War II. Any pre-existing customary limitations on the use of force were significantly broadened by article 2(4), and the drafting process was not accompanied by meaningful State practice developing in parallel with this radical change in the law. Therefore, the customary rule prohibiting recourse to force between States must have arisen after the Charter entered into force. The emergence and development of the customary rule from 1945 onwards are examined in the next chapter.

The Middle Holocene was a time of change in both the Pampas and Patagonia. In some way, these changes were the prelude to the demographic expansion, regional diversification, economic intensification, and social complexity that characterized the following period, the Late Holocene. During the Middle Holocene times, archaeological evidence in the Pampas was scarce until a decade ago or so, but recent research increased information significantly (e.g., Ávila 2011; Ávila et al. 2011; Bonomo et al. 2013; Donadei Corada 2020; Gutiérrez et al. 2010; Mazzanti et al. 2015; Messineo et al. 2019a, b, c; Politis et al. 2012; Scheifler 2019). This period is characterized by global warming, known as the Hypsitermal or Holocene Thermal Maximum (Renssen et al. 2012). As a result, in the Pampas, the sea level raised above the current level at around 7000 BP. However, there is no agreement about the magnitude of this raising (between 2.2 to 6 masl depending on the author) and the chronology of the maximum ingression (see revisions in Aguirre and Whatley 1995; Melo et al. 2003). For Isla and Espinosa (1995), it began at the onset of the Holocene, reaching its maximum height (around 2 masl) around 6500–6000 BP. This resulted in the coast having sometimes a transgressive position, such as in the east of the Salado Depression and the Paraná Delta (Cavallotto et al. 2004, 2005; Iriondo and Kröhling 2008), while in other cases, it was very close to the present according to the variations of the littoral morphology.

Introduction

The 17 SDGs proposed by the United Nations and adopted as the UN Resolution A/RES/66/288 (UN General Assembly, 2015a) are:

Goal 17 Strengthen the means of implementation and revitalize the global partnership for sustainable development. The SDGs are ‘universal goals and targets which involve the entire world, developed and developing countries alike’ (UN General Assembly, 2015a, 3). At the centre of the SDGs, there are the human rights, equality and sustainability issues; and together the SDGs are designed to achieve (United Nations, 2012):

■ Inclusive economic development by:

• – eradicating income poverty and hunger

• – reducing inequalities

• – ensuring decent work

• – productive employment.

■ Inclusive social development by enabling/ensuring:

• – adequate nutrition for all

• – quality education for all

• – reduced mortality and morbidity

• – gender equality

• – universal access to clean water and sanitation.

■ Environmental sustainability by:

• – protecting biodiversity

• – stable climate

• – resilience to natural hazards.

■ Peace and security by achieving:

• – freedom from violence, conflict and abuse

• – conflict-free access to natural resources. Descriptions, logos and other details of the 17 Goals are available on the UN website (https://sdgs.un.org/goals) and widely discussed across a range of UN and other websites and research literature. See for example:

■ Indicators – Sustainable development Indicators – Eurostat (europa.eu)

■ research papers (e.g. Duane et al., 2022; Farisyi et al., 2022; Filho et al., 2021; Helfaya and Bui, 2022; Kuc-Czarnecka, Markowicz and Sompolska- Rzechuła, 2023; Le Sourd et al., 2021; Popescu, 2022; Sondermann and Ulbert, 2021; Stauropoulou et al., 2023; Xiao et al., 2023)

■ reports (e.g. UN SDG Data Portal: https://unstats.un.org/sdgs/dataportal; Regional Forum on Sustainable Development to Define a Road Map for Operationalizing Africa's Decade of Action (UN Economic Commission for Africa, 2020).

The 17 SDGs can be categorised under several themes. For example, A/RES/70/1 Transforming Our World: the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development (un.org); (OECD, 2022) puts forward 5 Ps:

• 1 People, to end poverty and hunger, in all their forms and dimensions, and to ensure that all human beings can fulfil their potential in dignity and equality and in a healthy environment: SDG1, SDG2, SDG3, SDG4 and SDG5

• 2 Planet, to protect the planet from degradation, including through sustainable consumption and production, sustainably managing its natural resources and taking urgent action on climate change: SDG6, SDG12, SDG13, SDG14, SDG15

The second element of causal complexity consists in the presence of conjunctions. In this chapter, the analytic consequences for SMMR are detailed and solutions for containing these consequences are formulated. Those strategies consist in applying further SMMR principles and in selecting cases based on whether their selection adheres to those principles. Learning goals: - Understand the challenges for causal inference SMMR designs triggered by conjunctions - Learn about how additional principles guide case selection in causal inference SMMR designs in the presence of conjunctions - Distinguish between focal and complementary conjuncts - Get acquainted with ranks for cases and case pairs in causal inference SMMR designs and how those ranks reflect which SMMR principles are fulfilled and which ones are violated - Learn about INUS conditions that qualify as necessary for the outcome and the consequences this triggers for purposeful case selection in causal inference SMMR designs - Understand the reasons why increased complexity of QCA solution formulas in the form of conjunctions also increases the complexity of causal inference SMMR designs