Although the relationship between dyslipidaemia (DL) and coronary artery disease (CAD) or between trace minerals intake and CAD is well known separately, the exact nature of this relationship remains unknown. We hypothesize that the relationship between trace mineral intake and CAD may differ depending on whether or not the individual has DL. The present study analysed the relationships among trace mineral intake, DL, and CAD in middle-aged and older adults living in Shika town, Ishikawa prefecture, Japan. This study included 895 residents following the exclusion of those with genetic risk carriers for familial hypercholesterolemia. Trace mineral intake was evaluated using the brief-type self-administered diet history questionnaire. Interactions were observed between DL and CAD with zinc (p = 0.004), copper (p = 0.010), and manganese intake (p < 0.001) in a two-way analysis of covariance adjusted for covariates such as sex, age, body mass index, and current smokers and drinkers. Multiple logistic regression analysis showed that zinc (odds ratio (OR): 0.752; 95% confidence interval (CI): 0.606, 0.934; p = 0.010), copper (OR: 0.175; 95% CI: 0.042, 0.726; p = 0.016), and manganese (OR: 0.494; 95% CI: 0.291, 0.839; p = 0.009) were significant independent variables for CAD in the dyslipidaemic group. The present results suggest that DL with a low trace mineral intake is associated with CAD. Further longitudinal studies are required to confirm this relationship.

Patients with type 2 diabetes have increased risks for dyslipidaemia and subsequently for developing vascular complications. A recent meta-analysis found that cetoleic acid (C22:1n-11) rich fish oils resulted in lower cholesterol concentration in rodents. The aim was to investigate the effect of consuming fish oils with or without cetoleic acid on serum cholesterol concentration in diabetic rats and to elucidate any effects on cholesterol metabolism. Eighteen male Zucker Diabetic Sprague Dawley rats were fed diets containing herring oil (HERO) or anchovy oil (ANCO) or a control diet with soyabean oil for 5 weeks. The HERO diet contained 0·70 % cetoleic acid, with no cetoleic acid in the ANCO diet. The HERO and ANCO diets contained 0·35 and 0·37 wt% EPA + DHA, respectively. Data were analysed using one-way ANOVA. The serum total cholesterol concentration was 14 % lower in the HERO group compared with ANCO and Control groups (P = 0·023). The HERO group had a higher faecal excretion of bile acids (P = 0·0036), but the cholesterol production in the liver, the hepatic secretion of VLDL and the liver’s capacity to take up cholesterol were similar to controls. The ANCO diet did not affect the serum cholesterol concentration, but the hepatic cholesterol biosynthesis, the clearance of lipoprotein cholesterol and the excretion of bile acids in faeces were higher than in the Control group. To conclude, consumption of herring oil, but not of anchovy oil, led to a lower cholesterol concentration in a type 2 diabetes rat model.

CVD is the leading cause of death worldwide, and is commonly associated with modifiable risk factors. Most studies to date examining link between food intake and risk of CVD, have focused on modulation of plasma cholesterol concentrations (total cholesterol (TC), LDL-C). However, recent studies suggest LDL particle size is a more sensitive risk marker for CVD with smaller, dense LDL particles reported as more atherogenic than larger, more buoyant LDL. Although dietary guidelines recommend SFA intake of < 10 % of total energy, this does not consider food source, with recent evidence suggesting differing, sometimes beneficial, lipid responses following consumption of SFA from dairy compared to other food sources. This may be from differences in the physical food matrices, the nutrient content of the foods, and/or how these components interact with each other, described as a ‘dairy matrix effect’. Dietary fat not only raises LDL-C, but also HDL cholesterol (HDL-C), associated with reduced CVD risk. HDL particles are complex emulsions of lipids, proteins and microRNAs that exhibit atheroprotective properties. In addition, HDL particles exhibit a very heterogeneous proteomic composition, dependent on a person’s disease state – with a more pro-inflammatory proteome evident in patients with established CVD. This review will discuss the evidence to date on the importance of the food matrix in modulating response to dietary SFA and impact on CVD risk factors. A focus on potential biomarker properties of lipoprotein particles beyond cholesterol and current use of such biomarkers in human nutrition research will be considered.

Mycoprotein consumption has been shown to improve acute postprandial glycaemic control and decrease circulating cholesterol concentrations. We investigated the impact of incorporating mycoprotein into the diet on insulin sensitivity (IS), glycaemic control and plasma lipoprotein composition. Twenty healthy adults participated in a randomised, parallel-group trial in which they consumed a 7 d fully controlled diet where lunch and dinner contained either meat/fish (control group, CON) or mycoprotein (MYC) as the primary source of dietary protein. Oral glucose tolerance tests were performed pre- and post-intervention, and 24 h continuous blood glucose monitoring was applied throughout. Fasting plasma samples were obtained pre- and post-intervention and were analysed using quantitative, targeted NMR-based metabonomics. There were no changes within or between groups in blood glucose or serum insulin responses, nor in IS or 24 h glycaemic profiles. No differences between groups were found for 171 of the 224 metabonomic targets. Forty-five lipid concentrations of different lipoprotein fractions (VLDL, LDL, intermediate-density lipoprotein and HDL) remained unchanged in CON but showed a coordinated decrease (7–27 %; all P < 0·05) in MYC. Total plasma cholesterol, free cholesterol, LDL-cholesterol, HDL2-cholesterol, DHA and n-3 fatty acids decreased to a larger degree in MYC (14–19 %) compared with CON (3–11 %; P < 0·05). Substituting meat/fish for mycoprotein twice daily for 1 week did not modulate whole-body IS or glycaemic control but resulted in changes to plasma lipid composition, the latter primarily consisting of a coordinated reduction in circulating cholesterol-containing lipoproteins.

Trans-10, cis-12-conjugated linoleic acid (CLA) is a potent bioactive fatty acids (FA) that causes milk fat depression in lactating animals. FA are transferred to milk directly through chylomicrons and indirectly by recycling through other tissues. The objective of this study was to characterise the kinetics of trans-10, cis-12 CLA transfer to plasma and milk after a single bolus infusion. Five multiparous mid-lactation cows received a single abomasal bolus infusion of an enriched CLA mixture providing 15 g of trans-10, cis-12 CLA and 15 g of cis-9, trans-11 CLA over a 30-min period. Plasma concentration of trans-10, cis-12 and cis-9, trans-11 CLA peaked 2 h post-bolus, reaching 0·29 and 0·38 % of total plasma FA, respectively, and returned to pre-bolus values at 72 h post-infusion. Milk trans-10, cis-12 CLA yield and concentration peaked 14 h post-bolus (0·25 g/h) and was not detectable in milk after 86 h. Total apparent transfer of trans-10, cis-12 CLA to milk was 41 %, with 73 % transferred to milk through the direct pool (chylomicrons) and the remaining 27 % transferred through the indirect pool (tissue recycling). Compartmental modelling revealed the existence of a transient unavailable pool of trans-10, cis-12 CLA in extravascular tissues represented primarily by the mammary gland, which slowly exchanges with an available pool for secretion in milk fat and transfer to milk. In conclusion, trans-10, cis-12 CLA is predominantly transferred to milk through the direct pathway; however, how this CLA isomer is processed within the mammary gland requires further investigation.

Several studies have reported association of altered levels of lipids and some trace elements with risk factors for cardiovascular disease development in adulthood. Accordingly, the present study aimed to determine the relationship among the serum levels of copper (Cu), zinc (Zn), lipids, lipoproteins and apolipoproteins in preterm infants through an assessment of atherogenic indices shortly after birth. Blood samples were collected within 20 min of birth from 45 preterm infants with gestational ages ranging from 32 to 35 weeks. Serum Cu, Zn, total cholesterol (TC), low-density lipoprotein cholesterol (LDLc), high-density lipoprotein cholesterol (HDLc), apolipoprotein-A1 (apoA1) and apolipoprotein-B (apoB) levels were measured, and the TC/HDLc, LDLc/HDLc and apoB/apoA1 ratios were calculated. Upon determining the correlation between the levels of Cu, Zn and these indices of lipid metabolism, triglyceride (TG) and Cu were found to correlate negatively with birth weight (BW) and the standard deviation (s.d.) score for body weight. Furthermore, Cu levels correlated positively with the TG level and TC/HDLc, LDLc/HDLc and apoB/apoA1 ratios and negatively with the HDLc level and HDLc/apoA1 ratios. However, a stepwise multiple regression analysis indicated that the s.d. score for BW and TG level were significant independent determinants of the Cu level. In contrast, Zn did not correlate with any of these indices. In conclusion, intrauterine growth restriction and the TG level at birth influence Cu levels in preterm infants, whereas atherogenic indices do not affect this parameter.

The healthy Nordic diet has been previously shown to have health beneficial effects among subjects at risk of CVD. However, the extent of food changes needed to achieve these effects is less explored. The aim of the present study was to investigate the effects of exchanging a few commercially available, regularly consumed key food items (e.g. spread on bread, fat for cooking, cheese, bread and cereals) with improved fat quality on total cholesterol, LDL-cholesterol and inflammatory markers in a double-blind randomised, controlled trial. In total, 115 moderately hypercholesterolaemic, non-statin-treated adults (25–70 years) were randomly assigned to an experimental diet group (Ex-diet group) or control diet group (C-diet group) for 8 weeks with commercially available food items with different fatty acid composition (replacing SFA with mostly n-6 PUFA). In the Ex-diet group, serum total cholesterol (P<0·001) and LDL-cholesterol (P<0·001) were reduced after 8 weeks, compared with the C-diet group. The difference in change between the two groups at the end of the study was −9 and −11 % in total cholesterol and LDL-cholesterol, respectively. No difference in change in plasma levels of inflammatory markers (high-sensitive C-reactive protein, IL-6, soluble TNF receptor 1 and interferon-γ) was observed between the groups. In conclusion, exchanging a few regularly consumed food items with improved fat quality reduces total cholesterol, with no negative effect on levels of inflammatory markers. This shows that an exchange of a few commercially available food items was easy and manageable and led to clinically relevant cholesterol reduction, potentially affecting future CVD risk.

Ageing is associated with a prolonged and exaggerated postprandial lipaemia. This study aimed to examine the contribution of alterations in chylomicron synthesis, size and lipid composition to increased lipaemia. Healthy older (60–75 years; n 15) and younger (20–25 years; n 15) subjects consumed a high-fat breakfast. Chylomicron dynamics and fatty acid composition were analysed for 5 h in the postprandial state. Plasma TAG levels were elevated following the meal in the older subjects, relative to younger subjects (P<0·01). For older subjects compared with younger subjects, circulating chylomicron particle size was smaller (P<0·05), with greater apoB content (P<0·05) at all postprandial time points. However, total chylomicron TAG concentration between the groups was unaltered post-meal. Compared with younger subjects, the older subjects exhibited a greater proportion of oleic acid in the TAG and phospholipid (PL) fraction (P<0·05), plus lower proportions of linoleic acid in the TAG fraction of the chylomicrons (P<0·01). Thus, following the ingestion of a high-fat meal, older individuals demonstrate both smaller, more numerous chylomicrons, with a greater total MUFA and lower PUFA contents. These data suggest that the increased postprandial lipaemia of ageing cannot be attributed to increased chylomicron TAG. Rather, ageing is associated with changes in chylomicron particle size, apoB content and fatty acid composition of the chylomicron TAG and PL fractions.

A high-fat diet is known to induce atherosclerosis in animal models. Dietary factors and timing of atherogenic food delivery may affect plasma lipoprotein content composition and its potential atherogenic effect. Increasingly often, humans spend periods/days eating in a completely unregulated way, ingesting excessive amounts of food rich in oils and fats, alternating with periods/days when food intake is more or less correct. We investigate the effect on lipid homeostasis of a high-fat diet administered either continuously or intermittently. We investigated control pigs receiving standard diet (C, n=7), pigs receiving a high-fat diet every day for 10 weeks (CHF, n=5), and pigs receiving a high-fat diet every other week for 10 weeks (IHF, n=7). IHF animals were shown to have a different lipid profile compared with CHF animals, with a significant increase in high-density lipoproteins (HDL) levels with respect to C and CHF groups. CHF also showed significantly higher values of TC/HDL cholesterol compared with C and IHF. Hepatic expression analysis of genes involved in lipid homeostasis showed an increasing trend of nuclear receptor LXRα along with its target genes in the CHF group and in the IHF group, whereas SREBP2 and LDLr were significantly inhibited. A significant correlation was found between ABCA1 expression and circulating levels of HDL-C. Periodic withdrawals of a high-fat atherogenic diet compared with a regular administration results in a different adaptive response of lipoprotein metabolism, which leads to a significantly higher plasma level of HDL-C and lower TC/HDL-C.

Few studies have examined associations between different subcategories of cholesterol and cognitive function. We examined relationships between total cholesterol (TC), high-density lipoprotein cholesterol (HDL), low-density lipoprotein cholesterol (LDL), triglyceride levels and cognitive performance in the Maine-Syracuse Longitudinal Study, a community-based study of cardiovascular risk factors. Cross-sectional analyses were undertaken on data from 540 participants, aged 60 to 98 years, free of dementia and stroke. TC, HDL, LDL, and triglyceride levels were obtained. Cognitive function was assessed using a thorough neuropsychological test battery, including domains of cognitive function indexed by multiple cognitive tests. The cognitive outcomes studied were as follows: Visual-Spatial Memory and Organization, Verbal and Working Memory, Scanning and Tracking, Abstract Reasoning, a Global Composite score, and the Mini-Mental State Examination (MMSE). Significant positive associations were observed between HDL-cholesterol and the Global Composite score, Working Memory, and the MMSE after adjustment for demographic and cardiovascular risk factors. Participants with desirable levels of HDL (≥60 mg/dL) had the highest scores on all cognitive outcomes. There were no significant associations observed between TC, LDL, or triglyceride concentrations and cognition. In older individuals, HDL-cholesterol was related to a composite of Working Memory tests and for general measures of cognitive ability when adjusted for cardiovascular variables. We speculate that persons over 60 are survivors and thus less likely to show cognitive deficit in relation to TC, LDL-cholesterol, and triglycerides. Longitudinal studies are needed to examine relations between specific cognitive abilities and the different subcategories of cholesterol. (JINS, 2014, 20, 1–10)

Evidence suggests that breastfeeding during infancy lowers the risk of metabolic syndrome (MS) and its attendant risk factors in adult life. To investigate the influence of feeding type on the risk factors of MS, we assessed insulin sensitivity and lipid and apolipoprotein metabolism in preterm infants. Blood samples were collected from preterm infants at the time of discharge. Infants were separated into two groups: a breast milk (BM) group receiving ⩾90% of their intake from BM, and a mixed-fed (MF) group receiving ⩾50% of their intake from formula. The following indices were then compared between the two groups. Blood glucose and serum insulin levels were used to calculate the quantitative insulin sensitivity check index (QUICKI). We also measured serum total cholesterol (TC), low-density lipoprotein cholesterol (LDLc), high-density lipoprotein cholesterol (HDLc), apolipoprotein-A1 (apoA1) and apolipoprotein-B (apoB) levels, and the ratios of TC/HDLc, LDLc/HDLc and apoB/apoA1. The mean gestational age was 32.9 weeks at birth, and blood samples were collected at a mean corrected age of 37.4 weeks. There were 22 infants in the BM group and 19 in the MF group. QUICKI was significantly higher in the BM group. TC, HDLc and apoA1 were not significantly different between the groups, but LDLc and apoB levels were significantly higher in the BM group. The TC/HDLc, LDLc/HDLc and apoB/apoA1 ratios were significantly higher in the BM group. In preterm infants, the type of feeding exposure in the early postnatal period may influence glucose, lipid and apolipoprotein metabolism, and affect markers of MS.

Altered lipid metabolism has been shown in fish fed plant protein sources. The present study aimed to gain further insights into how intestinal and hepatic lipid absorption and metabolism are modulated by plant meal (PM) and soya-saponin (SA) inclusion in salmon feed. Post-smolt Atlantic salmon were fed for 10 weeks one of four diets based on fishmeal or PM, with or without 10 g/kg SA. PM inclusion resulted in decreased growth performance, excessive lipid droplet accumulation in the pyloric caeca and liver, and reduced plasma cholesterol levels. Intestinal and hepatic gene expression profiling revealed an up-regulation of the expression of genes involved in lipid absorption and lipoprotein (LP) synthesis (apo, fatty acid transporters, microsomal TAG transfer protein, acyl-CoA cholesterol acyltransferase, choline kinase and choline-phosphate cytidylyltransferase A), cholesterol synthesis (3-hydroxy-3-methylglutaryl-CoA reductase) and associated transcription factors (sterol regulatory element-binding protein 2 and PPARγ). SA inclusion resulted in reduced body pools of cholesterol and bile salts. The hepatic gene expression of the rate-limiting enzyme in bile acid biosynthesis (cytochrome P450 7A1 (cyp7a1)) as well as the transcription factor liver X receptor and the bile acid transporter abcb11 (ATP-binding cassette B11) was down-regulated by SA inclusion. A significant interaction was observed between PM inclusion and SA inclusion for plasma cholesterol levels. In conclusion, gene expression profiling suggested that the capacity for LP assembly and cholesterol synthesis was up-regulated by PM exposure, probably as a compensatory mechanism for excessive lipid droplet accumulation and reduced plasma cholesterol levels. SA inclusion had hypocholesterolaemic effects on Atlantic salmon, accompanied by decreased bile salt metabolism.

Oxysterols (oxidised cholesterol) may play a role in the pathogenesis of CVD. Similar to cholesterol, plant sterols are susceptible to oxidation. However, less is known about the potential atherogenicity of oxidised plant sterols (oxyphytosterols). In the present study, the atherogenicity of a mixture of oxyphytosterols was examined by feeding female LDL receptor-deficient (LDLR+/ −) mice for 35 weeks a control diet (atherogenic high-fat diet; n 9), an oxysterol diet (control diet+0·025 % (w/w) oxysterols; n 12) or an oxyphytosterol diet (control diet+0·025 % (w/w) oxyphytosterols; n 12). In the LDLR+/ − mice, serum levels of cholesterol, lipoprotein profiles, cholesterol exposure and inflammatory markers at the end of the experiment were comparable between the three diet groups. Nevertheless, the proportion of severe atherosclerotic lesions was significantly higher after oxysterol (41 %; P= 0·004) and oxyphytosterol (34 %; P= 0·011) diet consumption than after control diet consumption (26 %). Oxyphytosterol levels in the lesions were the highest in the oxyphytosterol group. Here, we show that not only dietary oxysterols but also dietary oxyphytosterols increase the proportion of severe atherosclerotic lesions. This suggests that plant sterols when oxidised may increase atherosclerotic lesion severity instead of lowering the size and severity of lesions when fed in their non-oxidised form. Therefore, this finding might give an indication as to where to find the answer in the current hot debate about the potential atherogenicity of plant sterols. However, to what extent these results can be extrapolated to the human situation warrants further investigation.

Administration of fish oil (FO) in broiler diets can elevate α-linolenic acid (ALA), eicosapentanoic acid (EPA) and docosahexanoic acid (DHA) levels, which are protective against cardiovascular disease. However, optimization based solely on n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acid (n-3 PUFA) enrichment in chicken meat could lead to lower meat quality, unless the withdrawal period (plan) is applied for 1 week. The present study investigated whether the incorporation of FO in the diet for 32 days followed by its withdrawal for 1 week affected blood lipid profiles, lipoprotein particles, performance and meat flavor in male broiler chickens. Two hundred and forty birds (1-day-old, Ross 308) were assigned to 1 of 4 dietary groups: 0%, 1%, 2% or 3% FO with four replicates. Broilers were fed for 49 days according to a 4-phase feeding program. The experimental phase comprised day 11 to 42, and FO was removed on day 42. Blood samples were collected during the pre- and post-withdrawal period after the recordings before slaughter. The FO groups demonstrated decreased low-density lipoprotein (LDL) and increased high-density lipoprotein levels on day 42 (P < 0.01); however, these values were not significant after design withdrawal. Diet supplementation with FO elevated the blood levels of palmitic acid (C16:0) and n-3 PUFAs, especially long-chain (LC) PUFAs (EPA, C20:5n-3 and DHA, C22:6n-3), and caused a decline in the level of arachidonic acid (AA, C20:4n-6; P < 0.05). Application of a one-week withdrawal period resulted in a decrease in (P < 0.05) linoleic acid (C18:2n-6) and an increase in the level of AA, unlike their amounts on day 42. Although blood and tissue LC n-3 PUFA levels on day 49 were significantly higher in the FO groups compared with the control, they demonstrated a substantial decrease on day 49 compared with day 42. The best results, mainly the lowest n-6/n-3 fatty acids (FAs) and feed conversion ratio (FCRs), were observed for 3% FO (group T4), even after institution of the withdrawal design. Degradation of total n-3 FAs deposited in tissues occurred after instituting the withdrawal plan diet, but deposited levels of EPA and DHA in tissues could ensure omega-3 enrichment of broiler meat in groups 3 and 4. On the basis of the dissatisfaction of the panelists toward group 4 meats (scored as near to acceptable) and their satisfaction with cooked samples of T3 (scored as good), group 3 meats were selected as good-quality n-3-enriched broiler meat.

Epidemiological studies have demonstrated the benefits of nut consumption on cardiovascular risk factors and CHD, attributed to their fatty acid profile, rich in unsaturated fatty acids, and also to other nutrients. The effect of nuts on atherosclerotic lesions was studied in female and male apoE-knockout mice fed a diet supplemented with 3 % (w/w) mixed nuts (mix: almonds, hazelnuts and walnuts in a proportion of 0·25:0·25:0·50, respectively), and compared with mice receiving an isoenergetic diet of similar fat content provided as palm oil. After 12 weeks, plasma lipid parameters and aortic lesions were measured. Males receiving nuts had lower plasma cholesterol than the palm oil group, and both sex groups had lower plasma non-HDL-cholesterol and lower content of reactive oxygen species in LDL than mice receiving the palm oil diet, the latter decrease being more pronounced in females than in males. Females consuming the nut diet showed a smaller aortic lesion area than those consuming palm oil, whereas no differences were observed in males. In females, hepatic paraoxonase 2 (Pon2) mRNA increased, and no change was observed in prenylcysteine oxidase 1 (Pcyox1) expression after the consumption of the nut-containing diet. In addition, aortic atherosclerotic lesions correlated directly with total plasma cholesterol and inversely with hepatic Pon2 expression. The results suggest that the beneficial effect of nut intake in female apoE-deficient mice may be attributed to reduced non-HDL-cholesterol levels and enhanced PON2 antioxidant activity.

Some seaweeds exert antioxidant and hypocholesterolaemic properties. The effects of diets including restructured meats (RM) containing Wakame (W) or Nori (N) algae on arylesterase (AE) activity and lipoprotein concentration and composition were tested. In the present study, six groups of ten male growing Wistar rats each were fed a mix of 85 % AIN-93M diet and 15 % freeze-dried RM for 35 d. The control group (C) consumed control RM, the W and N groups consumed RM with 5 % W and 5 % N, respectively. The cholesterol-enriched C (CC), W (CW) and N (CN) groups consumed their corresponding basal diets with supplementary cholesterol (2·43 %) and cholic acid (0·49 %). Cholesterol in the diet induced lower (P < 0·001) growth ratios. Both W and N diets significantly increased AE activity. VLDL-cholesterol values were lower in N rats than in W rats. AE activity increased (P < 0·001) in CC and CW rats but not in CN rats compared with their corresponding counterparts. AE was lower (P < 0·05) in the CN group than in the CC and CW groups. The CN diet partially blocked (P < 0·001) the hypercholesterolaemic induction observed in CC and CW diets and reduced TAG levels (at least P < 0·05) with respect to those of CC rats. Although dietary cholesterol supplementation increased total cholesterol, VLDL-cholesterol and (intermediate-density lipoprotein+LDL)-cholesterol (all P < 0·001) in all rats, the CN diet moderately improved the lipoprotein profile of hypercholesterolaemic rats. Changes in AE activity and plasma cholesterol in CN rats but not in CW rats suggest a possible relationship between the two parameters. It is concluded that inclusion of RM enriched with N may be used in hypercholesterolaemic diets to improve lipoprotein metabolism.

To establish the effectiveness of a new phytosterol-containing spread derived from rice bran oil (RBO), a randomised, double-blind, cross-over human clinical trial was conducted over 12 weeks. A total of eighty mildly hypercholesterolaemic (total blood cholesterol level ≥ 5 and ≤ 7·5 mmol/l with a serum TAG level of ≤ 4·5 mmol/l) individuals were randomised into two groups (n 40). Group 1 consumed spread only daily for 4 weeks. They were randomised to consume 20 g RBO spread (RBOS), 20 g standard spread (SS) or 20 g phytosterol-enriched spread (PS). After a 4-week period, individuals changed to the next randomised treatment until all three treatments had been consumed. Group 2 consumed spread plus oil daily for 4 weeks. They consumed 20 g RBOS plus 30 ml RBO, 20 g SS plus 30 ml sunflower oil or 20 g RBOS. Blood samples were collected for the analysis of lipid parameters, and 3 d diet records were collected. Compared with SS, RBOS significantly reduced total cholesterol by 2·2 % (P = 0·045), total cholesterol:HDL by 4·1 % (P = 0·005) and LDL-cholesterol by 3·5 % (P = 0·016), but was not as effective overall as PS, which reduced total cholesterol by 4·4 % (P = 0·001), total cholesterol:HDL by 3·4 % (P = 0·014) and LDL-cholesterol by 5·6 % (P = 0·001). In group 2, the addition of RBO to the RBOS produced no differences in cholesterol levels. These results confirm that RBOS is effective in lowering serum cholesterol when consumed as part of a normal diet.

We conducted a cross-sectional study of NMR-derived HDL subclasses and alcohol intake among 2171 community-dwelling older adults with a large proportion of daily or near-daily alcohol consumers (44 %). We aimed to assess whether, in addition to increasing total HDL, alcohol may induce a beneficial shift in HDL particle size distribution. Participants were categorised based on reported alcohol intake (g per week) and on frequency (none, < 3 times/week, 3–4 times/week, ≥ 5 times/week). The association between alcohol intake and lipoprotein fractions was examined using sex-specific linear regression models adjusted for age, BMI, diabetes, current smoking, exercise and hormone therapy in women. There was a stepwise gradient with the highest weekly alcohol consumption associated with the highest total HDL size and greatest number of medium and large HDL particles, as well as higher total HDL concentrations (all P < 0·001); total small HDL did not differ. Alcohol–HDL size associations were similar in both sexes and did not differ by use of hormone replacement therapy in women. In conclusion, regular alcohol consumers had a higher number and percentage of large HDL particles than non-drinkers. These results suggest that one way that alcohol may decrease CVD is through potentially favourable changes in lipoprotein subclass composition.