Various forms of containerised gas killing systems have been used to slaughter large numbers of poultry on farms during outbreaks of notifiable diseases. However, none of the systems have been fully evaluated to assess bird welfare, operators’ health and safety and biosecurity during operation. In addition, standard operating procedures associated with containerised gas killing systems are lacking in the literature. Therefore, a research and development project was initiated by the Department for Environment, Food and Rural Affairs (DEFRA) in the UK with the primary objective being to develop humane systems for culling poultry on farm and to produce operating procedures based on sound scientific principles. A series of studies have been conducted to achieve the objective and relevant observations and operating procedures are reviewed in this paper.

Zeolites are crystalline, hydrated aluminosilicates of alkali and alkaline earth cations which have infinite, three dimensional structure. Among many properties attributed to zeolites, two most characteristics that relates to their effectiveness in animal nutrition are their ability to lose and gain water reversibly and being capable of exchanging selectively a variety of cations in their structure without much major changes of structure. However the effect of zeolites on food intake, weight gain, growth rate, egg production, egg weight, shell thickness and internal egg characteristic are in dispute. While some of the experiments report beneficial effect due to inclusion of zeolite in the diet of birds, others show no changes and yet there are results that indicate the negative effects. Reasons such as level of usage, type of zeolite (natural vs. synthetics) and even within natural ones, the levels of impurities, are to be blamed for discrepancies reported from the experiments. On the other hand there has been evidence that zeolites has beneficial effect on feed efficiency ratio, water consumption, nutrient utilization, manure and litter condition and more importantly on aflatoxicosis.

Phytic acid is an anti-nutritional constituent of plant derived feeds. As a reactive anion, it forms a wide variety of insoluble salts with minerals including phosphorus, calcium, zinc, magnesium and copper. Phytic acid is also known to form complexes with protein and proteolytic enzymes (pepsin and trypsin). Because of the lack of endogenous phytase enzymes that hydrolyze phytic acid; phosphorus, calcium, protein and other phytic acid bound nutrients are less available to poultry. Commercially-available microbial phytase has great nutritional significance and ecological importance. Poultry diets supplemented with microbial phytase result in improved growth performance and increased digestibility and availability of phytate bound phosphorous, calcium, zinc and copper. Microbial phytase supplementation has also been shown to increase ileal digestibility of crude protein and amino acids. The efficacy of supplemental microbial phytase depends on its rate of inclusion, dietary calcium and phosphorus ratio, vitamin D3, nature of diet, age and genotype of birds. Thus, microbial phytase can be used to exploit the inherent nutritional potential of feedstuffs for more economic and environmentally-friendly poultry production.

The following paper reviews the current data regarding the physiological origins of variations in feed efficiency, and the effects of genetic selection on energy balance parameters. Effects of diet composition on response to genetic selection are considered by focusing on three feed factors: protein concentration, energy concentration and utilisation of specific ingredients. Analyses of effects of genetic selection on responses to diet composition highlight the problems associated with the increased dietary protein concentrations needed by the latest commercial broilers as a result of genetic selection. The advantages and disadvantages in producing lean birds are discussed from the point of view of feed efficiency and adaptation to feed variation. Lastly, the problems of variation in digestibility resulting from broiler selection are discussed.

A survey was conducted in two districts of Andaman and Nicobar Islands, India, where the endangered Nicobari fowl can still be found. For this survey, a stratified multi-stage sampling design was adopted as per the proforma prepared by the National Bureau of Animal Genetic Resources, Karnal, India. The estimated population was found to be less than 8000. A total of 1256 respondents were selected randomly covering ninety villages spread over nine zones within two districts. Results of the study in respect of socio-economic status of the farmers, geographical and demographic distribution, physical characters, husbandry and feeding practices, housing, growth, production and reproduction performances under free-range/backyard system, egg and carcass quality traits, stress tolerance, incidence of diseases, mortality pattern and health maintenance programmes are highlighted. The results of earlier studies on this breed like performances under intensive management and molecular characterization are also reviewed.

Domestic chickens produce eggs that contain at almost equal proportions female and male embryos. For many centuries, domestic chickens were bred as dual-purpose birds for both egg and meat production. In contrast, commercial hybrid chickens are selected for one purpose only; either eggs or meat. Surplus day-old male chicks of the layer type are currently without significant commercial value and are at best used as food for e.g. carnivorous animals. All attempts to raise male chicks of the layer type for meat production have resulted in high consumption of feed and poor meat yield which is difficult to market at competitive prices. Ethical views alongside commercial considerations are now confronted with a serious dilemma regarding the limited and reasonable utilization of newly hatched male hybrid chicks from laying strains. An abundance of scientific and practical efforts have been made in both past and present times to detect the sex in eggs pre-incubation and in embryos as early as possible. These studies include attempts to determine the sex in eggs prior to and during incubation and in day-old chicks. Various manual and instrumental morphological, enzymatic and molecular methods were used. This paper reviews these methods and discusses their relevance for practical breeding and production purposes.

During the last decade it has become obvious that, while our lifestyle, including diet, stress, smoking, medical issues, exercise, and genetics are major determinants of human health status, it is diet that plays a central role. The effect of nutrition on human health has received substantial attention, and even ‘traditional’ medicinal philosophies that state that diet and nutrients play only limited roles in human health is being revised. In most developed countries nutritional practices have changed the focus from combating nutrient deficiencies to addressing nutrient requirements for maintaining good health throughout life. The role of selenium (Se) in human health and diseases has been discussed in detail in several recent reviews, with the main conclusion being that Se deficiency is recognised as a global problem which needs solving urgently. Analysing recent publications that relate human health to useful poultry products, it is evident that Se-enriched eggs can be used as an important delivery system of this trace mineral for humans. In particular, developments and commercialisation of organic forms of selenium has initiated a new era in the availability of selenium-enriched products. It has been shown that egg selenium content can be easily manipulated to give increased levels, especially when organic selenium is included in hen's diet at levels that provide 0.3-0.5 ppm Se in feed. As a result, technology for the production of eggs delivering ~50% (30-35 μg) of the human selenium RDA have been developed and successfully tested. Currently companies all over the world market Se-enriched eggs including the UK, Ireland, Malaysia, Thailand, Australia, Turkey, Russia and Ukraine. Prices for enriched eggs vary from country to country, typically being similar to free-range eggs. The scientific, technological and other advantages and limitations of producing designer/modified eggs as functional foods are discussed in this paper.

When egg storage periods are prolonged (>7 days), hatchability and chick quality declines. The reason for this decline has been investigated, but is still not completely understood. At oviposition the developmental stage of the chicken embryo varies and so do the total number of viable cells. During storage, changes can occur in the embryo. Embryo viability at the end of storage seems to be dependent on the number of viable cells and the developmental stage of the embryo at oviposition. When the hypoblast is completely formed (during the quiescent developmental stage), the embryo seems to be more able to endure prolonged storage periods than embryos that are less or more advanced. During storage, changes also occur in egg characteristics such as albumen viscosity, albumen pH and yolk pH. There appears to be an interaction between albumen pH and embryo viability during early incubation and perhaps also during storage. An albumen pH of 8.2 seems to be optimal for embryo development. Albumen pH may influence embryo viability, but embryo viability may in turn, affect albumen pH. It has been hypothesised that an embryo in which the hypoblast is completely formed is better able to provide an effective barrier between the internal embryo and the exterior (yolk and albumen) and/or is better able to produce sufficient amount of carbon dioxide, which will reduce the pH level in the micro environment of the embryo to the optimal pH of 8.2. It appears that, to maintain hatchability and chick quality after prolonged storage periods, embryonic development should be advanced to the stage in which the hypoblast is completely formed or the atmosphere during storage and early incubation should be altered in such a way that albumen pH is maintained at the optimal level of 8.2.

Hatchling length and weight are used as tools to measure hatchling quality. However, the relationship between these parameters and later performance are not well known. This review evaluates the relationship between hatchling length or weight and slaughter weight, breast meat yield and feed conversion ratio (FCR) in both male and female broilers.

Datasets from two trials were compared. In the first, hatchling length and weight of 100 male and 100 female broilers were measured and body weight and breast meat yield were determined at 38 days of age. In experiment 2, hatchling length of 187 female and 230 male broilers was measured and body weight was determined at 21 and 42 days of age. Feed intake was determined between 21 and 42 days of age.

In both experiments, male broilers showed a positive relationship between hatchling length and slaughter weight or breast meat yield, but no relationship was found with hatchling weight. The relationship between hatchling length and performance in female broilers differed between the two experiments. In female broilers, a negative relationship between hatchling weight and breast meat yield was found. No relationship between hatchling length and FCR in both male and female broilers was found. From this limited dataset, it can be concluded that hatchling length seems to be a better parameter to predict subsequent chick performance, excluding FCR, than hatchling weight, but gender needs to be taken into account.

The aim of this paper is to review the current status of poultry production and its future prospects in Bangladesh, covering both rural and commercial poultry production. As an important sub-sector of livestock production, the poultry industry in Bangladesh plays a crucial role in economic growth and simultaneously creates numerous employment opportunities. The poultry industry, as a fundamental part of animal production, is committed to supplying the nation with a cheap source of good quality nutritious animal protein in terms of meat and eggs. Two main systems of poultry production are common in Bangladesh nowadays: commercial poultry production – where birds are kept in total confinement, and traditional scavenging or semi-scavenging poultry production. Approximately 20% of the protein consumed in Bangladesh originates from poultry. With the exception the dip in production due to the recent Avian Influenza outbreak, the growth of this industry in terms of standards of commercialization, is very rapid. A gap still exists between the requirement and supply of poultry meat and eggs within the recent frame-work of the informal marketing system that is currently used. Among poultry species, the chicken population is dominant over others, at almost 90%, followed by ducks (8%) and a small number of quail, pigeons and geese. Free range ‘backyard’ and scavenging poultry, that are traditionally reared by rural women and children, still play an important role in generating family income, in addition to improving the family's diet with eggs and meat. Productive and reproductive performance of indigenous birds is relatively very low (35-40 eggs and 1-1.5 kg meat per bird per year), but genetic improvements by selective breeding, along with adequate nutrition and proper management, looks promising and quite possible. Commercial poultry production in Bangladesh, is conducted on an industrial scale and is growing tremendously in spite of recent difficulties but is expected to make a significant contribution to the economic development of the country. A national poultry policy is expected to be approved by the government shortly, which, when implemented, will improve the organization of production and marketing, allowing increased stability and security of output throughout the year. In addition, efforts should be taken to ensure safety standards of poultry meat and eggs for human consumption. Experts from the government, research institutes, universities, NGOs and other relevant sectors need to work in a collaborative manner in order to allow sustainable production and fight challenges jointly when they appear from time to time. Corresponding attention to research and development will allow the poultry sector to flourish in Bangladesh. As government funding is limited, industrialists need to come forward either to establish their respective research facilities or to provide funds to universities and research institutes in order to undertake research works of national and international importance.

Distillers dried grains with solubles (DDGS) is a by-product of the ethanol industry produced by dry mill ethanol plants. During the fermentation process starch from the grain is converted to ethanol and CO2, concentrating the remaining nutrients in DDGS by 2-3 times. In the European Union the favoured use of renewable energy sources has encouraged increased production of biofuels. The increase of bio-ethanol production has resulted in large quantities of DDGS entering the feed raw material market. Because of its high nutrient quality, related to the typically gentle drying and processing it receives, DDGS obtained from the modern ethanol industry may be used as a feed for monogastric animals with good results. The main problem in the use of DDGS for poultry is its high variability of nutrient content and availability.

Results from different laboratories on the use of DDGS as feed component for poultry are discussed in the article. Based on the results presented, DDGS obtained from the modern ethanol plants is an acceptable ingredient of poultry diets and can be safely fed at 5-8% in starter diets for broilers and turkey, and 12-15% in grower-finisher diets for broiler and turkey and diets for laying hens.

These observations report on the outbreak of mild to moderate Newcastle disease following LaSota vaccination at many commercial poultry layer farms in India. It is believed that this happened due to the presence of complicating pathogens in the birds, mainly mildly pathogenic avian influenza viruses (MPAI) and infectious bronchitis virus (IBV). Of the two, the principal role appeared to be that of MPAI. The reasons for the precipitation of Newcastle disease are discussed. In such cases, administration of cloned vaccine both live and killed yielded remarkable results and prevented losses. In time, the birds fully recovered. It is suggested that high titres following live and killed cloned vaccine against Newcastle disease may also protect the birds against MPAI.

Newcastle disease is a viral and often fatal disease that has been reported to affect a wide range of avian hosts, irrespective of age and sex. It is reported to be a major constraint to the development, survival and productivity of village poultry. This paper is a review of the epidemiology of Newcastle disease in village poultry in Nigeria, with emphasis on the susceptibility of species, types and ages. Also examined are the challenges and prospects of Newcastle disease control in this village poultry sector in Nigeria. This was conducted for the purpose of formulating effective strategies for controlling the disease in the rural areas of Nigeria.

The heart rate (HR) of chick embryos before hatching is a relevant physiological parameter for the evaluation of regulation mechanisms of the cardiovascular system under different environmental conditions, e.g. oxygen supply. Movements of the embryo can be interpreted as a behavioural response to such changes. Using the PowerLab hardware and Chart software (AD Instruments), the ECG of a 14 day old chick embryo was recorded almost non-invasively by three electrodes penetrating the otherwise intact egg shell. The Chart program can be used to calculate the HR and its variability from the precisely detectable R-waves of the ECG. Artefacts in the ECG trace are derived from movements of the embryo. Under hypoxic conditions, the program can show that HR and HRV increased, whereas the embryo movements decreased. Using this technology, it can be determined that the embryo compensates for lower oxygen supply with faster blood circulation and saves energy by reducing unnecessary movements.

Approximately 110 million birds from nineteen documented indigenous, heavier and lighter bodied chicken breeds and numerous non-descript types are bought and sold at unorganized meat markets in India. Improving the economic production profile for poultry farmers had been a focus since independence. Genetic improvements by selection over seven generations in non-descript chicken breeds has resulted in 19 more eggs and 4 g higher egg weight. Indigenous exotic crossbreds have shown an increase of 24-45 eggs, which has been associated with increased body weight and earlier age of sexual maturity. Heterosis for egg number ranged from 15-23 percent. Hybrids of the Aseel and Delhem Red breeds produced more eggs than either of the parents. Exotic crossbreds, including the Vanraja, Giriraja, Nadanum, Kuroiler (semi-broiler types) and Krishna-J, Grampriya, Krishipriya, Hit-CARI, Up-CARI (lighter weight) were introduced to scavenging in small scale poultry operations by both public and private sector organisations. The production of the Kalyani-DK and Satpura-Desi synthetic hybrid prototypes, which resemble indigenous fowl in body conformation, multi coloured plumage, dull shanks, pink skin and single comb have generated new opportunities for poultry production in rural areas. The Satpura-Desi attained 1.0 kg bodyweight in 8-9 weeks with 2.45 kg feed. In the ‘quick return’ scheme for free range flocks the 200-300 g birds grew to marketable weight in another 50-60 days and were worth 150% in market price compared to the broiler chicken. Whereas, in a gradual income scheme, the egg produced, surplus cockerels and culled hens resulted in a net gain of US$64-70 annually; the quick return scheme for meat chicken produced a net income of US$96 for village women which exceeded the gradual financial returns generated from egg production. Small scale poultry farmers, raising 100-2000 Satpura-Desi chickens, have been able to capitalize on its acceptance as an indigenous breed in the local meat markets, which has been apparent from the sale of 0.67 million chicks in last 12 months.

Newcastle disease is a major constraint to poultry production in Africa, in both commercial and village rearing systems. A ten-year review (January, 1996-December, 2005) of case reports in respect of Newcastle and other poultry diseases diagnosed at the veterinary clinics in Kaduna, Nigeria was conducted. A total of 3164 outbreaks were documented with 1050 outbreaks diagnosed as ND. There were significant (P>0.05) associations in the distribution of Newcastle disease and age, breed, season, type of bird and management system of poultry in Kaduna. ND outbreaks were most prevalent during the dry season (December – March). Poultry kept in confined conditions, broilers, pullets, layers and birds between 3-4 weeks and 13-15 weeks of age were at greatest risk of suffering from ND outbreaks. Single vaccination had a significant effect (P<0.05) on reducing incidence of disease compared to birds that were not vaccinated or had multiple ND vaccinations. These findings have an impact on the correct approach to immunization practices using to control disease under African conditions.