Affiliative stimuli are pleasant and highly biologically relevant. Affiliative cues are thought to elicit a prosocial predisposition. Here affiliative and neutral pictures were exposed prior to a reaction time task which consisted in responding to a visual target. Half the participants responded with finger-flexion, a movement frequently involved in prosocial activities. The other half responded with finger extension, a less prosocially compatible movement. Results showed that under the exposure to affiliative pictures, as compared to neutral ones, participants who used finger flexion were faster, while those using finger extension were slower. Performance benefits to the task, when flexing the finger, together with performance costs, when extending it, indicate the relevance of movement compatibility to the context. These findings put forward a possible link between affiliative primers and motor preparation to facilitate a repertoire of movements related to prosocial predispositions including finger flexion.

This study is aimed at exploring daily and desired activity patterns in a sample of older people living in a rural context, as well as at examining the effect of some influential factors and their relationships with life satisfaction. Our sample was made of 216 retired people and was recruited from 12 villages from Catalonia and Valencia with populations of less than 1000 inhabitants. Data were gathered by means of an interview that included daily and ideal activities and life satisfaction (by applying the Life Satisfaction Index). Our results show that yesterday's pattern of activities is similar to an ideal pattern, although in the ideal day, our sample allocated more time to social activities and less time to passive activities such as watching TV or resting. In both cases, leisure activities and time spent working seem to play an important role in older people's life. Gender has a remarkable influence on patterns of activity, as women devoted more time to instrumental activities and less time to leisure. In general, differences between yesterday's and ideal activities were not related to life satisfaction.

Twelve healthy subjects underwent investigation of averaged (electroencephalogram) EEG potentials during preparation for motor activity and in the latent period (LP) of visually evoked saccades by presentation of stimuli using Posner's (1980) design of “cost-benefit.” It has been shown that covert spatial attention orientation leads to an increase in amplitude and decrease in latency of presaccadic initiation potential peaks within the saccadic latent period (LP) (P-100, N –50). Processes of covert orientation of attention during the interstimulus interval period of anticipation of the target stimulus correlate with the increase of slow negativity of fronto-parietal-temporal localization. Spatial-temporal changes of presaccadic potentials are evidence of the fact that orientation of attention during motor preparation and saccadic initiation is reflected in intensification of fronto-parietal networks of saccadic control and attention, activating the fronto-medio-thalamic and thalamo-parietal modulating systems.

From a dispositional perspective, we extend the action identification theory (Vallacher & Wegner, 1987) and construal level theory (Trope & Liberman, 2003) to cross-situational consistency of self and self-control. Two studies examined the relationships among the abstract mindset (Vallacher & Wegner, 1989), cross-situational consistency in self-concept (Vignoles et al., 2016), and self-control (Tangney, Baumeister, and Boone 2004). In Study 1, participants (N = 725) characterized by high cross-situational consistency showed more abstraction in their thinking (p < .001, ηp2 = .17). In Study 2 (N = 244) cross-situational consistency and self-control explained 10% of construal level, with self-control being a significant predictor (p < .001). Construal level and cross-situational consistency explained 17% of self-control; both were significant predictors (p < .001). Self-control explained 8% of cross-situational consistency (p < .001). Study 2 showed that participants with higher levels of abstraction, cross-situational consistency, and self-control reported a greater intention to control their future sugar intake (p < .001). Data supported relationships among abstract construal level, cross-situational consistency and self-control.

Several studies question the usefulness of the Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children (WISC-IV) in determining giftedness due to the importance of speed in some of its subtests, which may penalize children of high intellectual level. This study analyzes the factor structure of the WISC-IV of gifted children based on confirmatory factor analysis. Participants were eighty-seven gifted children from Spain (6–13 years old). Score discrepancies were also examined for the main indexes: Verbal Comprehension, Processing Speed, Working Memory and Perceptual Organization. Results pointed out four models with a good fit from the five models analyzed: a two-factor model according to GAI subscales (RMSEA = .001, p = .84), a four-factor first-order model including main indexes (RMSEA = .05, p = .19), a four-factor model with g as a direct factor (RMSEA = .001, p = .84) and a four-factor model with g as an indirect higher-order factor (RMSEA = .05, p = .13). Discrepancies were found between Verbal Comprehension and Processing Speed, and between Perceptual Organization and Processing Speed. Verbal Comprehension yielded the highest score, whereas the lowest scores were obtained in Processing Speed and Working Memory. These results support the use of this scale in the assessment and diagnosis of Spanish children with a high intellectual level.

A deepening in the biological nature of the general factor of personality (GFP) is suggested: the activation level of the stress system is here represented by the gene expression of c-fos. The results of a single case experimental design are reported. A model of four coupled differential equations that explains the human personality dynamics as a consequence of a single stimulant drug intake has been fitted to psychological and biological experimental data. The stimulant-drug conditioning and its adaptation to the considered mathematical model is also studied for both kinds of measures. The dynamics of the c-fos expression presents a similar pattern to the dynamics of the psychological measures of personality assessed by the GFP-FAS (Five-Adjective Scale of the General Factor of Personality) as a consequence of a single dose of stimulant drug (methylphenidate). The model predicts similar dynamic patterns for both psychological and biological measures. This study proves that describing mathematically the dynamics of the effects of a stimulant drug as well as the effects of a conditioning method on psychological or subjective variables and on gene expression is possible. It verifies the existence of biological mechanisms underlying the dynamics of the General Factor of Personality (GFP).

To analyze the factorial structure and psychometric properties of the Spanish adaptation of the AEQ, and to validate it by reporting relevant pain-related variables, which were not investigated in the original study. One hundred and fifty Spanish patients diagnosed with chronic back and neck pain were referred by physicians from different pain clinics in Spain; all the patients filled out the questionnaires at their clinic. A series of principal components analyses (PCA) was performed to develop the Spanish version of the AEQ. Reliability and validity were also calculated. The PCAs revealed five fear-avoidance scales (Kaiser-Meyer-Olkin measures were between .60 and .88, and Bartlett’s tests were significant, p < .01): the Depression scale (DS), Anxiety scale (AS), Catastrophizing scale (CS), Helplessness/hopelessness scale (HHS), and Avoidance of Social and Physical Activities scale (ASPAS), and three endurance-related responses scales: Pain Persistence Behaviour and Distraction scale (PPDS), Ignoring Pain scale (IPS), and Humor scale (HS). All the scales showed high internal consistency (α > .73) and suitable validity (p < .05). New results associated with pain-related cognitive/affective and behavioural responses are discussed. This instrument will probably help clinicians to identify Spanish patients at a high risk of chronicity and to develop treatments tailored to the different profiles in order to improve secondary and tertiary prevention in back and neck pain.

This paper presents some preliminary results from a different approach to research on psychotherapeutic processes. As activity in psychotherapy is predominantly verbal, we propose a scientific study of therapists' verbal behavior from a behaviorist perspective. Data were obtained through observational analysis of the recordings of 16 clinical sessions involving 4 cases, all of which based on individual cognitive-behavioral therapy with adults, in the framework of private clinical practice in Spain. The analysis used a previously validated system of categories and The Observer XT software to register and code data. A descriptive analysis enabled us to identify several patterns of psychologists' verbal behavior, irrespective of the therapist and/or the case analyzed. Notable differences were also observed in clinicians' performance, which raises important questions about potential variables associated with therapeutic change. Finally, we discuss the strengths and weaknesses of the present research agenda, the development of which should lead to a fuller understanding of the psychotherapeutic phenomenon.

The factor structure of the Reynolds Child Depression Scale (RCDS; Reynolds, 1989), analyzed by confirmatory factor analysis and the scale's psychometric characteristics in a sample of 315 participants (140 boys and 175 girls) and a clinical sample of 62 participants (37 boys and 25 girls) between 10 and 12 years old, are presented. Two models are tested with confirmatory factor analysis: a one-factor model and a five-factor model. Both models show a good fit, but the one-factor model was chosen because it is the most parsimonious. The reliability coefficient ranged from .87 (at test) to .89 (at retest) in the community sample, and was .90 in the clinical sample (at test). Test-retest reliability was .66 in the community sample. Concurrent validity with other self-reports that measure depressive symptomatology was high, both in the community sample (.76) and the clinical sample (.71). There were no significant sex differences but there were differences due to age (school grade).

The purpose of this study was to investigate the relationship between the use of condoms and other contraceptive methods and religiosity/spirituality among youths of a low socioeconomic level in Porto Alegre. 1013 youths, between 12–24 years of age participated, responding to a personal questionnaire containing 109 items. Results show that 53.5% of these youths had already had their first sexual encounter, 55% of which had this experience before the age of 15. The majority (42.8%) claimed to be Catholic, and 26.7% said they believe in God, but were not religious. There appeared no significant difference in the use of condoms in relation to the level of religiosity, however, men used this method more than women to avoid AIDS and as a contraceptive. Women used other contraceptive methods more frequently, and there were no cases of exclusive use of methods permitted by the major religions (natural methods). This study revealed a high level of condom use (more than 80%) among both religious and non-religious youths.

This paper describes characteristic behaviors of my father, B. F. Skinner, using family documents and my own recollections. Early contingencies in his upbringing strengthened his love of building things and his independence in discovering how the world works. Those skills, combined with a lack of supervision in graduate school, set the stage for his discovery of the operant. He did not stop with laboratory research. He extended his discovery of how consequences select behavior into education and the design of cultural practices. As well as solving society's problems, my father was always concerned with improving his own behavior. Some of the contingencies he set up to maximize his own productivity are described.

Are we flexible in using different strategies to regulate our emotions during our daily functioning? What are the personal and situational mechanisms accounting for this complex set of emotion regulation (ER) processes? And to what extent different forms of ER flexibility are adaptive? Current empirical evidence challenges a static view of ER strategies as inherently adaptive or maladaptive. This has led contemporary accounts to consider the variation in use of ER strategies across time depending on the complex interplay of personal characteristics, specific situational demands, and motivational goals. However, despite the relevance of these new approaches and their obvious theoretical and practical implications, the study of ER flexibility is a relatively young research field, still lacking common integrative views. In this paper, I briefly discuss the shared and unique components across different theoretical frameworks of ER flexibility and make recommendations for future research to advance the understanding of this crucial phenomenon. I identify specific questions that may be contrasted through programmatic research lines and propose that the integration of cognitive mechanisms known to affect ER may help to advance the science of ER flexibility. I also enumerate a series of methodological approaches that can be used to tests proposed models of ER flexibility. Finally, I highlight potential practical implications that can be derived from these new research programs in order to improve interventions aimed at promoting adaptive ER flexibility and adaptive functioning.

Burnout is characterized by emotional exhaustion, depersonalization and lack of personal accomplishment (Bakke, Demerouti, & Sanz-Vergel, 2014). Several instruments for its measurement exist, but the most widely used scale for measuring its dimensions, by far, is the Maslach Burnout Inventory (MBI) in its different versions. Among the available versions of the scale, the MBI-General Survey was developed to measure three dimensions of burnout (cynicism, personal accomplishment, and emotional exhaustion) regardless of the type of work. The aim of this research is to offer evidence on the psychometric properties of the MBI-GS for its use in the Dominican Republic and other Caribbean Spanish-speaking countries, using representative sample of Dominican teachers. The factorial validity was studied through confirmatory factor analysis. Several competing models were proved in order to test the dimensionality of the scale. The confirmatory analyses shown that the original three-factor structure had a superior fit, but item eleven was removed in order to get an excellent fit χ2(87) = 211.19, p < .001, CFI = .98, RMSEA = .038 90% CI [.032–.045]. Regarding internal consistency, the CRI´s are well above the cut-off criteria of .7 (CRI’s ranged from .74 to .86). Concerning criterion-related validity, the three factors were correlated in the expected direction. Professional efficacy, a dimension of burnout measured in the opposite direction, was positively correlated with the three factors of work engagement, also as expected. This version was found to be a psychometrically sound measure of the three core dimensions of burnout.

This study had two main purposes. First, to measure high-school students’ task model representation under the instruction to self-explain questions; second, to test the effects of self-generated explanations on task-demands understanding and performance on questions. We designed a simple experimental situation where high-school students were asked to read two texts and answer questions. Only in half of the questions students were required to self-explain with their own words what the question was asking them for before answering. Contrary to our expectations, self-explaining the questions did not significantly affect skilled comprehenders, whereas it hindered performance in less-skilled comprehenders. Moreover, it inhibited their active engagement in search for textual units of information. Less-skilled comprehenders’ explanation protocols included inaccuracies, with consequences on the search process and success in the task. The relationship among quality of task model, search for information and success is discussed in light of the TRACE model (Rouet, 2006).

The aim of this study was to assess gender differences in direct and indirect effects of parental knowledge, family support, family conflict, and deviant peers on violent and nonviolent antisocial behavior among youngsters. The total sample was composed of 584 young people, 274 males and 310 females, aged 14 to 20 from High Schools of Galicia (NW Spain). The variables were assessed with different scales of the protocol Valoración del Riesgo en Adolescentes Infractores [Juvenile Offender’s Risk Assessment]. Several structural equation models were conducted to clarify the relationships between these variables for males and females. The results showed a better fit for the mediated model. Significant direct effects were found for parental knowledge (β = –.35, p < .01, males; β = –.16, p < .05, females) and parental support (β = .26, p < .05, males) on nonviolent behavior. Significant direct effects were also found for parental knowledge (β = –.36, p < .05, males; β = –.42, p < .05, females) and parental support (β = .32, p < .05, males; β = .24, p < .05, females) on violent behavior. Not significant direct effects were found for family conflict. Moreover, significant indirect effects through deviant peers were found for knowledge (β = –.23, p < .01, males; β = –.21, p < .01, females), support (β = .20, p < .05, males; β = .21, p < .05, females), and conflict (β = .28, p < .01, males; β = .26, p < .05, females) on nonviolent behavior, as well as for knowledge (β = –.20, p < .01, males; β = –.10, p < .01, females), support (β = .18, p < .01, males; β = .10, p < .01, females), and conflict (β = .24, p < .05, males; β = .12, p < .01, females) on violent behavior. Thus, significant gender differences were found, specifically in the direct effects of family support on nonviolent antisocial behavior. The implications of these results for prevention of antisocial behaviors in youth based on gender differences are discussed.

The key role of rumination and perseveration processes in anger experience has been empirically supported. The tendency to ruminate has been demonstrated to be crucial in understanding pathological and adaptive behaviours. The Anger Rumination Scale (ARS) was developed to assess anger rumination frequency when people are angry, showing adequate levels of reliability and validity. However, although it has been adapted to several languages, the development of the Spanish version was still pending. The aim of this study, therefore, was to develop the Spanish adaptation of the ARS and to validate it in a general population sample (N = 388). Participants were asked to complete the ARS as well as other measures of anger (STAXI-2), anxiety (STAI-T), depression (BDI-II short form), rumination (PSWQ), and thought self-regulation (TCQ). A confirmatory factor analysis replicated the four-factor structure obtained with the original version (S-B χ2(145) = 323.26, p < .00005; CFI = .92; TLI = .90; RMSEA = .06; SRMR = .05). The resulting subscales (i.e., Angry Afterthoughts, Angry Memories, Thoughts of Revenge, and Understanding of Causes) met psychometric criteria of reliability (α = .89) and validity. In conclusion, a psychometrically sound Spanish adaptation of the ARS is now available.

Classical ethology and behavioral ecology did not pay much attention to learning. However, studies of social learning in nature reviewed here reveal the near-ubiquity of reliance on social information for skill acquisition by developing birds and mammals. This conclusion strengthens the plausibility of the cultural intelligence hypothesis for the evolution of intelligence, which assumes that selection on social learning abilities automatically improves individual learning ability. Thus, intelligent species will generally be cultural species. Direct tests of the cultural intelligence hypothesis require good estimates of the amount and kind of social learning taking place in nature in a broad variety of species. These estimates are lacking so far. Here, we start the process of developing a functional classification of social learning, in the form of the social learning spectrum, which should help to predict the mechanisms of social learning involved. Once validated, the categories can be used to estimate the cognitive demands of social learning in the wild.

We use the term Quixoteism to refer to a new social motive. The characterization of this motive deals with two aspects: the definition of the ultimate goal (i.e., to increase the welfare of the world) and the proposal of a process that activates it (i.e., a transcendental-change orientation). Three studies were conducted to test this characterization. In Study 1 we developed an empirical measure of the transcendental-change orientation. The participants in Studies 2 and 3 were presented with a need situation. Results showed that the centrality of such an orientation was directly related to an interpretation consistent with the ultimate goal of Quixoteism (Study 2), and that its salience increases the likelihood of performing a high-cost prosocial behavior (Study 3).

The purpose of this work was to study the relationship between self-focusedattention and mindfulness in participants prone to hallucinations and others whowere not. A sample of 318 healthy participants, students at the universities ofSevilla and Almería, was given the Launay-Slade HallucinationsScale-revised (LSHS-R, Bentall & Slade, 1985). Based on this sample, two groups were formed:participants with high (n = 55) and low proneness(n = 28) to hallucinations. Participants with ascore higher than a standard deviation from the mean in the LSHS-R were includedin the high proneness group, participants with a score lower than a standarddeviation from the mean in the LSHR-R were included in the second one. Allparticipants were also given the Self-Absorption Scale (SAS, McKenzie& Hoyle, 2008) and theSouthampton Mindfulness Questionnaire (SMQ, Chadwick et al., 2008). The results showed thatparticipants with high hallucination proneness had significantly higher levelsof public (t(80) = 6.81, p< .001) and private (t(77) = 7.39,p < .001) self-focused attention and lower levelsof mindfulness (t(81) = -4.56, p< .001) than participants in the group with low hallucinationproneness. A correlational analysis showed a negative association betweenself-focused attention (private and public) and mindfulness (r= -0.23, p < .001; r= -0.38, p < .001 respectively). Finally,mindfulness was found to partly mediate between self-focused attention andhallucination proneness. The importance of self-focused attention andmindfulness in understanding the etiology of hallucinations discussed andsuggest some approaches to their treatment.

One hundred and fifty-five mothers of children with attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) completed a semi-structured interview, the Parenting Stress Index Questionnaire (Abidin, 1990), to evaluate parenting stress. The Parenting Scale (Arnold, O'Leary, Wolff & Acker, 1993) was also administered to measure dysfunctional discipline strategies. Structural equation modeling was used to test a model in which the independent variables were the Child's Characteristics and the Socio-Educational Status of his or her family; intermediate variables were Parenting Stress concerning the Child Domain and concerning the Parent Domain; and the dependent variable was Parental Discipline. The results confirm our hypotheses. Interventions in these families should therefore incorporate a component focused on Parenting Stress (in both the Child Domain and the Parent Domain), as a determinant of Parental Discipline.