Advances in high-throughput molecular biology, genomics and epigenetics, coupled with exponential increases in computing power and data storage, have led to a new era in biological research and information. Bioinformatics, the discipline devoted to storing, analysing and interpreting large volumes of biological data, has become a crucial component of modern biomedical research. Research in otolaryngology has evolved along with these advances.

This review highlights several modern high-throughput research methods, and focuses on the bioinformatics principles necessary to carry out such studies. Several examples from recent literature pertinent to otolaryngology are provided. The review is divided into two parts; this first part discusses the bioinformatics approaches applied in nucleotide sequencing and gene expression analysis.

This paper demonstrates how high-throughput nucleotide sequencing and transcriptomics are changing biology and medicine, and describes how these changes are affecting otorhinolaryngology. Sound bioinformatics approaches are required to obtain useful information from the vast new sources of data.

The diagnosis ‘acoustic shock’ has been made increasingly in the health care industry in recent years. This paper aims to question the validity of acoustic shock as an organic pathological entity.

The experiences of 16 individuals diagnosed as having acoustic shock, within a medico-legal practice, are reviewed.

The commonest symptom was otalgia, followed by noise sensitivity, tinnitus, hearing disturbance and dizziness.

The presence of noise-limiting technology in the workplace, the variation in the nature of the acoustic incident involved (ranging from a shriek, through feedback noise, to a male voice), and the marked variation in the time of symptom onset (following the acoustic incident) all suggest that the condition termed acoustic shock is predominantly psychogenic. Cases of pseudohypacusis indicate that malingering is a factor in some cases. Clusters of acoustic shock events occurring in the same call centres suggest that hysteria may play a part. The condition is usually only seen when work-related issues are apparent.

Professor Pietro Tullio was a director at the Laboratory of Experimental Physiology in Bologna during the early twentieth century. His experimental studies resulted in the description of the Tullio phenomenon, which is characterised by sound-induced vertigo and/or eye movements.

The experimental studies behind his contribution to vestibular physiology are described within this paper, as are some of the further developments that have been made.

To systematically review the literature on the occurrence of psychiatric diagnoses in a tinnitus-affected population, and correlate the presence of psychiatric disorders with tinnitus-related annoyance and severity.

A systematic review of the literature published between January 2000 and December 2012 was performed using PubMed, ISI Web of Science and SciELO databases. Original articles in English and Portuguese that focused on the diagnosis of mental disorders associated with tinnitus, especially anxiety and depression, were identified.

A total of 153 articles were found and 16 were selected. Fifteen articles showed a high prevalence of psychiatric disorders in tinnitus-affected patients, and nine showed a high correlation between the presence of a psychiatric disorder and tinnitus-related annoyance and severity.

The prevalence of psychiatric disorders, especially anxiety and depression, is high in tinnitus patients, and the presence of these disorders correlates with tinnitus-related annoyance and severity.

To systematically summarise the peer-reviewed literature relating to the aetiology, clinical presentation, investigation and treatment of geniculate neuralgia.

Articles published in English between 1932 and 2012, identified using Medline, Embase and Cochrane databases.

The search terms ‘geniculate neuralgia’, ‘nervus intermedius neuralgia’, ‘facial pain’, ‘otalgia’ and ‘neuralgia’ were used to identify relevant papers.

Fewer than 150 reported cases were published in English between 1932 and 2012. The aetiology of the condition remains unknown, and clinical presentation varies. Non-neuralgic causes of otalgia should always be excluded by a thorough clinical examination, audiological assessment and radiological investigations before making a diagnosis of geniculate neuralgia. Conservative medical treatment is always the first-line therapy. Surgical treatment should be offered if medical treatment fails. The two commonest surgical options are transection of the nervus intermedius, and microvascular decompression of the nerve at the nerve root entry zone of the brainstem. However, extracranial intratemporal division of the cutaneous branches of the facial nerve may offer a safer and similarly effective treatment.

The response to medical treatment for this condition varies between individuals. The long-term outcomes of surgery remain unknown because of limited data.

This study aimed to compare the outcomes of two frequently employed interventions for the management of tinnitus: tinnitus retraining therapy and cognitive behavioural therapy.

A systematic review of literature published up to and including February 2013 was performed. Only randomised control trials and studies involving only human participants were included.

Nine high-quality studies evaluating the efficacy of tinnitus retraining therapy and cognitive behavioural therapy were identified. Of these, eight assessed cognitive behavioural therapy relative to a no-treatment control and one compared tinnitus retraining therapy to tinnitus masking therapy. Each study used a variety of standardised and validated questionnaires. Outcome measures were heterogeneous, but both therapies resulted in significant improvements in quality of life scores. Depression scores improved with cognitive behavioural therapy.

Both cognitive behavioural therapy and tinnitus retraining therapy are effective for tinnitus, with neither therapy being demonstrably superior. Further research using standardised, validated questionnaires is needed so that objective comparisons can be made.

To investigate evidence that intra-operative nerve monitoring of the spinal accessory nerve affects the prevalence of post-operative shoulder morbidity and predicts functional outcome.

A search of the Medline, Scopus and Cochrane databases from 1995 to October 2012 was undertaken, using the search terms ‘monitoring, intra-operative’ and ‘accessory nerve’. Articles were included if they pertained to intra-operative accessory nerve monitoring undertaken during neck dissection surgery and included a functional shoulder outcome measure. Further relevant articles were obtained by screening the reference lists of retrieved articles.

Only three articles met the inclusion criteria of the review. Two of these included studies suggesting that intra-operative nerve monitoring shows greater specificity than sensitivity in predicting post-operative shoulder dysfunction. Only one study, with a small sample size, assessed intra-operative nerve monitoring in neck dissection patients.

It is unclear whether intra-operative nerve monitoring is a useful tool for reducing the prevalence of accessory nerve injury and predicting post-operative functional shoulder outcome in patients undergoing neck dissection. Larger, randomised studies are required to determine whether such monitoring is a valuable surgical adjunct.

This study compared the performance of two new bone-anchored hearing aids with older bone-anchored hearing aids that were not fully digital.

Fourteen experienced bone-anchored hearing aid users participated in this cross-over study. Performance of their existing bone-anchored hearing aid was assessed using speech-in-noise testing and questionnaires. Participants were then fitted with either a Ponto Pro or a BP100 device. After four weeks of use with each new device, the same assessments were repeated.

Speech-in-noise testing for the 50 per cent signal-to-noise ratio (the ratio at which 50 per cent of responses were correct) showed no significant differences between the Ponto Pro and the BP100 devices (p = 0.1) However, both devices showed significant improvement compared with the participants' previous bone-anchored hearing aid devices (p < 0.001). There were no significant differences between the two new devices in the questionnaire data.

Both fully digital bone-anchored hearing aids demonstrated superior speech processing compared with the previous generation of devices. There were no substantial differences between the two digital devices in either objective or subjective tests.

Immunoglobulin G4 related disease is an inflammatory condition characterised by the presence of fibrotic lesions infiltrated by immunoglobulin G4 positive plasma cells. It can arise from almost any region of the body and it is being increasingly recognised in the head and neck. Regardless of the site of involvement, the histopathological resemblance is remarkable. Dense lymphoplasmacytic infiltration, overabundance of immunoglobulin G4 bearing plasma cells and presence of storiform fibrosis are typical findings.

This paper presents two cases of immunoglobulin G4 related disease in which there was involvement of the orbit, the infraorbital nerve and the infratemporal fossa. Diagnosis was established in both cases by biopsying radiologically abnormal tissue in the infratemporal fossa.

An awareness of this condition is required to establish the diagnosis and initiate appropriate therapy. Glucocorticoids are the mainstay of initial treatment. The effectiveness of B-lymphocyte depletion with rituximab has also been reported. Correct diagnosis may spare patients from unnecessarily radical surgery.

To study the natural course of vestibular schwannomas 15 to 31 mm in diameter.

A retrospective study of 45 patients conservatively managed with interval scanning was performed. Outcome measures were: changes in tumour size, clinical features and hearing. A tumour was considered to be growing if it increased in size by more than 2 mm.

Initial tumour sizes ranged from 15 to 31 mm, with a mean (± standard deviation) diameter of 20.1 ± 4.3 mm. The duration of follow up ranged from 6 months to 14 years (median, 3 years). Tumours grew in 11 cases (24.4 per cent), remained stable in 30 cases (66.7 per cent) and regressed in 4 cases (8.9 per cent). The overall mean tumour growth rate was 0.9 ± 2.2 mm per year; in growing tumours, it was 3.6 ± 2.9 mm per year.

Outcomes were similar to those reported for smaller tumours. These findings suggest that patients with medium or moderately large tumours can be safely offered an initial period of conservative management before intervention is considered.

This study aimed to determine the effect of radiofrequency radiation generated by 900 and 1800 MHz Global System for Mobile Communications sources on cochlear development in the rat model.

Eight pregnant albino Wistar rats were divided into three groups: control, 900 MHz and 1800 MHz. The latter two groups of pregnant rats were exposed to radiofrequency radiation for 1 hour per day starting on the 12th day of pregnancy until delivery. The rats in the control, 900 MHz and 1800 MHz groups gave birth to 24, 31 and 26 newborn rats respectively. Newborn rats in the 900 MHz and 1800 MHz groups were exposed to radiofrequency radiation for 1 hour per day for 21 days after delivery. Hearing evaluations of newborn rats were carried out using distortion product otoacoustic emissions testing. Eight newborn rats were randomly selected from each group for electron microscopic evaluation.

Distortion product otoacoustic emission tests revealed no significant difference among the groups, but electron microscopic evaluation revealed significant differences among the groups with regard to the number of normal, apoptotic and necrotic cells.

The findings indicated cellular structural damage in the cochlea caused by radiofrequency radiation exposure during cochlear development in the rat model.

To determine whether the fibula free flap is the most frequently used osteocutaneous flap for mandible reconstruction, and whether it provides quality of life, depression and anxiety advantages.

A systematic review of the public Medline database was conducted. Thirteen patients who underwent mandibular reconstruction at our hospital centre completed questionnaires to evaluate quality of life, depression and anxiety outcomes.

The most frequently used free flaps are those of the fibula (n = 982), radial forearm (n = 201), iliac crest (n = 113), subscapular system (n = 50) and rib–serratus (n = 7). In our patient population, there was a trend towards a better quality of life in those with a fibula free flap. However, patients in this group were significantly younger than patients with other flap types (p = 0.025). Patients with a subscapular system free flap were more depressed (p = 0.031); however, they had large through-and-through defects.

The flap used most frequently in the literature is the fibula free flap. Comparative quality of life data are lacking, and homogeneous populations should be used to reach significant conclusions.

Application of one or several paper patches on the tympanic membrane can improve autophony and other symptoms in some patients with a patulous eustachian tube.

The charts of 21 patients treated for patulous eustachian tube syndrome between 2006 and 2011 were studied for subjective improvement of symptoms following the application of paper patches.

Paper patching of the tympanic membrane provided symptomatic relief in 76.2 per cent of patients; relief was permanent in 50 per cent of these patients.

Paper patching of the tympanic membrane is a simple and effective means of temporarily or permanently alleviating patulous eustachian tube syndrome symptoms. It is postulated that the patches decrease the admittance of low- to mid-frequency acoustic input at the tympanic membrane by increasing the stiffness of the tympanic membrane, thereby counteracting the middle-ear cushion effect caused by the open eustachian tube.

You've probably heard of patient and public involvement by now. You may even have ‘involved’ people in your research. But why involve patients, carers and members of the public at all? Is it just another hoop to jump through when preparing a research funding application for submission, or could it actually add something to your research? Could involving patients and members of the public even help you to design and deliver better research, with outcomes focused directly on the needs of your patient group?

This article aims to answer some of these questions. It considers the theory underpinning patient and public involvement. This is followed by practical suggestions and advice to help you develop (or further develop if you already involve people!) patient and public involvement within your own research. There is also a case study to illustrate some of the main points, and extracts written by members of Research Design Service North East Consumer Panels.

It is common practice to use head bandages for 7–10 days following pinnaplasty. However, head bandages are often troublesome for patients and can lead to serious complications.

A systematic review was performed to evaluate the use of head bandages after pinnaplasty. A search of Medline, Embase (Ovid) and CINAHL (EBSCO collections), the Cochrane Library, Pubmed (US National Library of Medicine) and Google Scholar identified 34 related articles. Of these, 14 were deemed relevant and 2 randomised controlled trials, 1 cohort study, 3 case series and 1 literature review met the inclusion criteria.

The two randomised controlled trials show no statistically significant difference in complications when a head bandage was used for the standard 7–10 days, for 24 hours or not at all. The three case series show that using a head bandage for 24 hours or not at all are safe alternatives. The review article recommended that when head bandages are applied after pinnaplasty it should be for the shortest duration possible.

Based on the available evidence, not using a head bandage at all or using one for a maximum of 24 hours following pinnaplasty is recommended.

Otic barotrauma is common among air travellers and can cause severe otalgia, perforation of the tympanic membrane and hearing loss. Many prevention measures exist, with varying evidence to support their use. There are no data to establish if air travellers are aware of them or indeed use them. We aimed to establish air travellers' knowledge of such prevention measures.

We surveyed air travellers at two UK airports by means of a questionnaire. Answers to the questionnaire were collected over a two-week period.

Overall, 179 air travellers with a mean age of 28 years (range: 15–72 years) completed the questionnaire. There were 66 female and 113 male air travellers. The majority (84 per cent) complained of symptoms while flying and 30 per cent were not aware of any prevention measures. Barotrauma-related symptoms were reported in 25 per cent of air travellers who were unaware of any prevention measures. Nearly all air travellers (86 per cent) indicated that more information regarding prevention measures would be useful.

Air travellers are often not aware of prevention measures to avoid otic barotrauma, and the majority suffer as a result. Increasing public awareness of simple prevention measures would have a significant impact on air travellers.

Hereditary sensorineural hearing loss is the most frequently occurring birth defect. It has profound effects for the individual and is a substantial burden on society. Insight into disease mechanisms can help to broaden therapeutic options and considerably lower lifetime social costs. In the past few decades, the identification of genes that can cause this type of hearing loss has developed rapidly.

This paper provides a concise overview of the currently known genes involved in non-syndromic hereditary hearing loss and their function in the inner ear.

Unilateral and bilateral sudden sensorineural hearing loss represent different disease entities. The unilateral condition is more common and predominantly idiopathic, and up to 65 per cent of patients spontaneously recover hearing. Conversely, the bilateral condition is rare, mostly associated with serious systemic conditions, and has a higher prevalence of morbidity and mortality.

A literature search using the PubMed database was conducted using the MeSH terms ‘sudden’, ‘bilateral’ and ‘sensorineural hearing loss’.

One hundred and three reported cases of bilateral sudden sensorineural hearing loss were identified. The condition is most often associated with toxic, autoimmune, neoplastic and vascular conditions. A younger age of onset, with a bimodal age distribution, was seen for bilateral sudden sensorineural hearing loss, compared with the unilateral condition. Patients with the bilateral condition had more profound hearing loss, with poorer recovery and a 35 per cent mortality rate. Vestibular symptoms were also less common than in the unilateral condition.

The presentation of bilateral sudden onset sensorineural hearing loss is a medical emergency requiring thorough and urgent investigation to exclude life-threatening and reversible conditions.