In a critique of my paper on ‘greenhouse’ gas (GHG) emissions from Amazonian reservoirs (Fearnside 1995), Rosa et al. (1996) suggest that I have reached overly pessimistic conclusions because the reservoirs on which my calculations are based are unrepresentative and because methods based on the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change's (IPCC) global warming potentials (GWPs) are unfair for comparing hydroelectric and fossil fuel options. I rush to defend my analysis.

Land-use change around protected areas limits their ability to conserve biodiversity by altering ecological processes such as natural hydrologic and disturbance regimes, facilitating species invasions, and interfering with dispersal of organisms. This paper informs USA National Wildlife Refuge System conservation planning by predicting future land-use change on lands within 25 km distance of 461 refuges in the USA using an econometric model. The model contained two differing policy scenarios, namely a ‘business-as-usual’ scenario and a ‘pro-agriculture’ scenario. Regardless of scenario, by 2051, forest cover and urban land use were predicted to increase around refuges, while the extent of range and pasture was predicted to decrease; cropland use decreased under the business-as-usual scenario, but increased under the pro-agriculture scenario. Increasing agricultural land value under the pro-agriculture scenario slowed an expected increase in forest around refuges, and doubled the rate of range and pasture loss. Intensity of land-use change on lands surrounding refuges differed by regions. Regional differences among scenarios revealed that an understanding of regional and local land-use dynamics and management options was an essential requirement to effectively manage these conserved lands. Such knowledge is particularly important given the predicted need to adapt to a changing global climate.

This paper provides a systematic way to consider justice in community-based environmental planning and management. A conceptual framework connects the literature on management functions to the empirical and theoretical research on justice. Two contrasting case studies of the water reform process in Australia are used to illustrate how to apply this framework. These case studies show that certain perspectives of justice are particularly pertinent during different phases of a planning process, and that community-based environmental planning and management can be more difficult when the stakeholders involved have different values and views about a resource, and when perceived injustices occur early in a planning process.

Ants are among the worst invasive species, and can have tremendous negative impacts on native biodiversity, agriculture, estates, property and human health. Invasive ants are extremely difficult to control, and thus early detection is essential to prevent ant invasions, in particular through surveillance efforts at ports of entry. This paper assesses the potential distribution of 14 of the worst invasive ant species in France, under current and future climatic conditions. Consensus species distribution models, using five different modelling techniques, three global climate models and two CO2 emission scenarios, indicated that France presented suitable areas for 10/14 species, including five listed on the Invasive Species Specialist Group's selection of the world's 100 worst invasive species. Among these 10 species, eight were predicted to increase their potential range with climate change. Areas with the highest concentration of potential invaders were mainly located along the coastline, especially in the south-west of France, but all departments appeared to be climatically suitable for at least two invasive species. A ranking of climatic suitability per species for 17 major airports and 14 maritime ports indicated that the ports of entry with the highest suitability were located in Biarritz, Toulon and Nice, and the species with the greatest potential distribution in France were Lasius neglectus and Linepithema humile, followed by Solenopsis richteri, Pheidole megacephala and Wasmannia auropunctata.

The possibility of persistent pollutants playing an adverse role in the reproductive success of Audouin's Gull in the western Mediterranean was examined through chemical analyses of 7 eggs of this species that did not hatch. Residues of organochlorine compounds and mercury were found.

The conclusion has been reached that a further increase of present levels of DDE may well lead to a decline of the reproductive success of the species in the western Mediterranean, especially in the northern part. These observations, although limited, could have implications for further species as is already indicated by other work cited.

Despite decades of continuous research highlighting the biological success of mountain gorilla conservation in the Virunga-Bwindi Massif, there is little knowledge of whether people living near the mountain gorilla parks perceive benefits from protected areas (PAs). This paper is the first study in the region to use the sustainable livelihoods framework to understand drivers of local perceptions of PA benefits. We used a logit regression to examine the relationship between household socioeconomic characteristics and the costs and benefits that 752 men and women living near mountain gorilla PAs reported. Integrated conservation and development projects (ICDPs) in the Virunga-Bwindi Massif have improved perceptions of mountain gorilla PAs, but they need to prioritize projects that improve human and social capital. The frustration voiced about inequitable benefit distribution highlights the need for further social equity research to ensure ICDPs, including revenue-sharing schemes, are managed transparently and equitably.

Hunting is a major threat to wildlife, and the use of dogs for subsistence hunting may significantly impact wildlife. I assessed the impacts of hunting with dogs by comparing the assemblages of species hunted by the Huni Kuin with and without dogs in indigenous lands in southwestern Brazilian Amazonia. I also assessed whether Huni Kuin agreements on hunting with dogs can be effective for conservation. Huni Kuin hunters with dogs rely on a different assemblage of prey than those without dogs; the former strategy targets mainly fast-reproducing, resilient species, whereas the latter method kills several sensitive or threatened species. Hunting with dogs is also limited to disturbed mixed landscapes near villages because the dogs are used to protect crops and are not allowed into forests in order to prevent them from becoming lost. Additionally, compared to hunting without dogs, hunting with dogs results in an equivalent amount of meat with the use of less effort and ammunition. Moreover, hunting with dogs is not associated with an increase in the distance of prey from villages. Therefore, there is no conservation-related reason to prohibit hunting with mixed-breed dogs in subsistence communities. Nevertheless, community agreements mediate local conflicts caused by the social inequalities related to hunting with dogs.

In their paper on environmental carrying capacity, Brown et al. (1997) describe some of the negative impacts of tourism development and propose the carrying capacity framework for addressing these impacts. Though we agree that these impacts should be addressed, we feel that the carrying capacity approach is inadequate for the task in most situations. An examination of the steps that are necessary for establishing a carrying capacity illustrates why this is the case (further discussion is provided in Lindberg et al. 1997).

Species distribution data are critical information sources when it comes to implementing the multiple Aichi Targets set by the international Convention on Biological Diversity. Although there have been international-scale efforts to aggregate distribution data, the magnitudes and locations of the gaps in biodiversity knowledge remain unclear. In this study, we use a large database, including over 200 000 species occurrence records, to identify knowledge gaps in biodiversity inventories for nine animal taxa in a Mediterranean biodiversity hotspot. Spatial modelling methods were employed to relate the completeness of inventories to population, road and protected area density. The completeness of faunistic inventories was correlated with the amount of protected areas, roads and population density. Despite more than 200 years of faunistic sampling, knowledge of the distributions of most animal taxa is still limited, especially for invertebrates. As the window of opportunity for achieving Aichi Targets 11 and 19 begins to close, means of filling such knowledge gaps are required. We argue that a combination of quantitative tools and citizen science data collection programmes may help inform conservation decisions.

The United Nations 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development sets a framework of universal Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) to address challenges to society and the planet. Island invasive species eradications have well-documented benefits that clearly align with biodiversity conservation-related SDGs, yet the value of this conservation action for socioeconomic benefits is less clear. We examine the potential for island invasive vertebrate eradications to have ecological and socioeconomic benefits. Specifically, we examine: (1) how SDGs may have been achieved through past eradications; and (2) how planned future eradications align with SDGs and associated targets. We found invasive vertebrate eradication to align with 13 SDGs and 42 associated targets encompassing marine and terrestrial biodiversity conservation, promotion of local and global partnerships, economic development, climate change mitigation, human health and sanitation and sustainable production and consumption. Past eradications on 794 islands aligned with a median of 17 targets (range 13–38) by island. Potential future eradications on 292 highly biodiverse islands could align with a median of 25 SDG targets (range 15–39) by island. This analysis enables the global community to explicitly describe the contributions that invasive vertebrate management on islands can make towards implementing the global sustainable development agenda.

Lockdowns associated with the COVID-19 pandemic temporarily restricted human activity and removed people from many places of work and recreation. The resulting ‘Anthropause’ generated much media and research interest and has become an important storyline in the public history of the pandemic. As an ecological event, the Anthropause is fleeting and unlikely to alter the long-term human impact on the planet. But the Anthropause is also a cultural symbol whose effects may be more enduring. Will the Anthropause inspire people and governments to mobilize for meaningful reform, or does it present a misleading and too-comforting portrayal of resilient nature and wildlife that could ultimately discourage action? While it is too early to gauge the impact of the Anthropause on human behaviour and politics, we use existing research on environmental symbols and metaphors to identify factors that may influence long-term behavioural and political responses to this globally significant period of time.

The paper discusses certain microbiological, biological, and chemical, aspects of pollution in Lake Naini Tal, U.P., India, which is characterized by heavy input of domestic sewage and other organic pollutants. The most probable number (MPN) for coliform Bacteria varied from 0.59 × 105 to 3.61 × 105 per 100 ml, being highest in the monsoon season and lowest in spring. The water was alkaline in reaction throughout the period of study. The concentrations of dissolved oxygen showed high values near the surface and low ones in the bottom waters. BOD values always exceeded 6.0 mg/1. The concentrations of NO3−N and P04−P varied from 0.100 to 0.750 mg/1 and 0.018 to 0.153 mg/1, respectively. These concentrations are sufficient to cause blooming of certain phytoplankters on occasion. The values of NH3–N fluctuated from 0.033 to 0.422 mg/1, being highest in winter and lowest in the monsoon months. Among the metallic ions, the values of Pb and Mn were higher than permissible limits.

The bottom sediments of the Lake were also found to produce toxic gases such as CH4, H2S, and NH3. Most of the carp fishes, such as Cyprinus carpio specularis, Tor tor, and Schizothorax spp., were found to be infected with Saprolegnia or other Fungi, or with trematodes. Certain phytoplankters (such as species of Microcystis, Anabaena, etc.), zooplankters (such as species of Bursaria, Spirostomum, Phillodina, etc.), and macrobenthos (including Tubifex tubifex, Limnodrilus sp., Chironomus plumosas, etc.), were found to be abundant. Macrobenthic species were absent from the profundal zone of the Lake, which showed all the important characteristics of a polluted water-body.

An ecological survey of undisturbed saline wastelands and adjacent fields of Kallar Grass (Leptochloa fusca) was undertaken to study species distribution in relation to soil conditions and changes in species composition during amelioration processes. Five plant communities, represented by Atriplex crassifolia C.A. Mey., Cynodon dactylon (L.) Pers., Desmostachya bipinnata (L.) Stapf, Suaeda fruticosa (L.) Forssk., and Eleusine flagellifera Nees, had colonized undisturbed areas. Soils of plant communities dominated by these species showed significant variations in salinity and sodicity. S. fruticosa was dominant on highly saline–sodic soil, Cynodon on slightly saline and moderately sodic soil, whereas D. bipinnata showed little variation in cover percentage with changes in salinity and sodicity of soil. These three species had wide ecological amplitude compared with E. flagellifera and A. crassifolia, which were restricted to non-saline and marginally saline–sodic soils, respectively.

Protected areas remain the most commonly used tool for in situ conservation; however growth in the USA's system of public lands has stagnated while private land conservation continues to expand. Easements can provide a range of ecosystem services (ESs), but it is unknown whether conservation easements maintain ES capacities equivalent to public protected areas. Evaluation of the capacity of seven ESs on federal and state protected areas and conservation easements in the USA using spatially-explicit ES models and publicly available data indicated that ES capacities in easements were equal to or greater than capacities within state or federal protected areas for six of seven services and, when bundled together, conservation easements protected greater focal ES capacity than other conservation areas. Economic incentive programmes and regulatory mechanisms may be used to stimulate capacity improvements for surface water regulation, riparian filtration, erosion control, and carbon storage on conservation easements, and landscape-level conservation efforts should (1) continue to protect natural and uninhabited areas that provide ecosystem and biological diversity, (2) expand private conservation efforts close to human population centres, and (3) limit future development to areas with high regulating service capacity that can sustain new population growth.

Throughout the tropics, developing countries and territories are highly dependent on nearshore marine resources for food and income, however information on the sustainability and proper management of these fisheries is lacking. In Pohnpei, Micronesia, the sustainability of a coral reef finfishery was assessed by comparing coral reef fish demand to coral reef biocapacity using a marine ecological footprint (MEF) analysis. Based on geo-referenced satellite and aerial imagery, Pohnpei and surrounding atolls have 184.2 km2 of coral reef habitat with a sustainable finfish yield of 573–1118 t yr−1, however total harvest was estimated at 4068 t yr−1, exceeding biocapacity by 360–710%. The MEF was supported by observed impacts to coral reef resources, including (1) long-term declines in fish spawning aggregation density, (2) reductions in mean size, age and fecundity of key commercial species, (3) reliance on undersized fish, and (4) decadal declines in mean size and abundance of fishes of iconic value and critical to ecosystem maintenance. The commercial fishery was responsible for 68% of finfish catch volume, while reef fish consumption, at 93 kg person−1 yr−1, was among the highest in the region. To sustainably meet current demand, up to 833 km2 of additional reef area would be required. The study illustrates the MEF, at least rudimentarily, reflects biological reality on local reefs and represents a valuable analytical tool in a marine policymaker's toolbox.

Burgeoning acquisition of information about the workings, scope and diversities of the cosmos put serious pressure on 19th-century European intellectuals to classify branches of human knowledge. A challenge presented itself not only to order different subject-areas and disciplines intelligently, or assess them according to apparent degrees of certitude, but also to discover some synthesizing principle by which all the distinctive methods of approaching the world might be viewed in interrelationship. This review shows that such endeavours to classify and unify were traditional procedures, with deep roots going back to antiquity, and they brought coherence to academic programmes through the centuries. As a mark of European modernity, there was a tendency to establish more rational, scientific and secular principles of order, and the consequent tensions between positivistic and holistic styles of approach to science have continued since. Since the beginning of the twentieth century, it is also recognized, the constant subdividing of academic agendas has made the work of classification much less manageable and attractive. If traditional principles to express the unity of knowledge were philosophical, or, in the case of the medieval universities, evoked the oneness of the divine Creation, it is intriguing how planetary survivalism in the present time has pushed environmental science centre-stage as a pivotal point of activity encouraging interdisciplinary collaboration. If varying consideration has been granted to practical subjects (for example agriculture) in the history of knowledge classification, their importance has been clarified by current biospheric predicaments.

Sea cucumbers play a critical role in maintaining healthy marine ecosystems. Sea cucumbers are also a key source of income for millions of small-scale fishers worldwide. The lucrative nature of this industry has led to severe reductions in sea cucumber populations in numerous regions globally. A large proportion of sea cucumber fisheries are located in developing countries, which present unique challenges to management, including addressing highly decentralized methods of extraction and processing, limited economic and technological resources for governance and, in many cases, a high dependency on sea cucumbers as a primary source of income for small-scale coastal fishers. In this review, we review the benefits and challenges of seven categories of sea cucumber management strategies used globally in developing countries, including gear restrictions, size and weight limits, effort and catch controls, temporal closures, area closures, value chain licensing and territorial use rights in fisheries. We conclude that sea cucumber management in developing countries could benefit from focusing regulatory solutions on narrowed parts of the value chain, coupling production-based management strategies with processing and export regulations and providing avenues for local fishers to inform policy at the local, regional and national levels.

A key characteristic of conservation in the United States is the dichotomy between two main philosophies. One of these is anthropocentric and utilitarian, advocating the wise use of Nature and natural resources, while the other is basically ecocentric, as it espouses principles of nonuse and preservation. This dualism has existed since the early days of the conservation movement, when the formerly uncontrolled use of a supposedly limitless natural environment finally gave way to a policy of resource management which was designed to conserve Nature and resource availability within the framework of human utilization. Generally opposed to this historically dominant paradigm were those who believed in preserving Nature for its own sake, and who have laboured over the years to modify and ameliorate the prevalent, central pattern.

After a period of relative unconcern, conservation underwent a resurgence as part of the environmental movement of the 1960s and 1970s. Environmental quality was the key concern, being highlighted by problems of pollution and degradation of the natural habitat. While providing the impetus for some broad environmental and conservation measures, this central focus directed primary attention to setting the problems. The traditional dominance of utilitarian resource management was maintained, relying on our managerial and scientific skills to address heightened environmental concerns. The era also spawned a number of other philosophies and themes. These have included a renewed sense of the ethics and spirituality of Nature, the emergence of ecology as a publicly-recognized-as-important field of science, ‘greener’ ecocentric movements, theories advocating more radical change, neo-Marxist theory on the relationship between Man and Nature, and various themes on limiting environmental growth and stress especially imposed by everincreasing human numbers.

An Eelgrass (Zostera marina L.) bed in a very shallow subtidal habitat adjacent to a busy port in southwestern British Columbia, Canada, was the site of experimental transplants. Eelgrass populations were successfully established, using a variety of transplanting techniques, namely cores (plants with the sediment retained around the rhizomes and roots), sprigs (plants from which the sediment had been washed), and sprigs anchored to buried lengths of iron rod. Transplants took place in two sites — (1) a shallow channel that had eroded from the sea into the Eelgrass bed, and (2) at the landward edge of the existing vegetation.