Moles are widely trapped as pests on farms and amenity land in Britain. Spring traps for killing mammals generally require welfare approval in the UK, but mole traps are exempt. Previous research demonstrated wide variation in the mechanical performance of mole traps. In this context, we aimed to produce new data on the welfare impact of kill-trapping moles in the field. We collected 50 moles trapped in southern England (November 2008-August 2009). Captures peaked during the peak in male breeding activity, when captures were almost exclusively male. Post mortem and x-ray (radiation) examinations were conducted to determine injuries and likely cause of death. No moles sustained damaged skulls or upper cervical vertebrae (which could cause unconsciousness immediately). The primary identifiable cause of death for all but one mole was acute haemorrhage; this contrasts with the findings of the only previous such study, in which only one mole showed clear evidence of haemorrhaging. Some moles may have asphyxiated although it was not possible to determine this. Moles most likely became unconscious before death, but times to unconsciousness, and death, can be determined only through killing trials and further investigation is urgently needed. This should be done through the spring traps approval process; this could improve the welfare standards of trapping for many thousands of moles each year. Mole trapping for long-term population control might be better targeted after the peak in male breeding activity, when females are more likely to be caught, but this would threaten the welfare of dependent young underground.

This study evaluated the short-term hormonal and behavioural responses to capture and radio-collar fitting in free-ranging pampas deer (Ozotoceros bezoarticus). Twenty adult deer (eleven females and nine males) were captured in the South Pantanal wetland (Brazil) and equipped with VHF radio-collars (marked deer). Untreated adult deer of the same sex were randomly chosen as the control group (nine females and nine males). On the day following capture, an observer followed all deer for faecal collection and behaviour evaluation. Faecal samples were immediately refrigerated and frozen at-20°C within a maximum of 12 h. Faecal glucocorticoid metabolites (FGM) were measured using an 11-oxoaetiocholanolone enzyme immunoassay. A qualitative behaviour assessment and the consequences of capture were evaluated using pre-defined terminologies and scores. Flight distance was recorded using a range finder. FGM increased from 19-22 h after capture onwards and peak concentrations were five times (median) higher as the respective baseline values. FGM values of marked deer were significantly higher at 22-25 and 25-28 h compared with controls. Marked male but not female deer had significantly higher FGM values at 22-25 and 25-28 h compared with their baseline values. Marked deer were significantly more fearful, less sociable and defensive than controls. The absences of significant increases of FGM in the captured female deer may indicate that females are less prone to capture stress. The significantly more fearful, and less sociable and defensive patterns observed in marked deer may be relevant during capture of lactating females or in areas with high predator pressure.

The objective of this study was to identify the extent of pre-stun shocks in a commercial broiler processing plant and to collect any evidence of their effect on broiler carcase and meat quality. The results showed that the degree of bird movement on entry to the water-bath was related to the incidence of pre-stun shocks, with heavier male birds showing less movement and correspondingly lower levels of pre-stun shocks. In a separate trial, 500 birds identified as receiving a pre-stun shock were compared with 500 control birds (no pre-stun shock). They were assessed for carcase downgrading conditions, red wing tips, wing haemorrhages, shoulder haemorrhages, breast muscle haemorrhages, the incidence of broken pectoral bones and also for meat quality defects. All downgrading conditions were subjectively assessed using photographic standards. The results of this study have shown that the incidence of pre-stun shocks has a significant effect both on carcase downgrading conditions and on meat quality. Pre-stun shocks are preventable and the poultry processing industry can improve both bird welfare and carcase and meat quality by ensuring that they do not occur.

Recently, several farm assurance schemes in the United Kingdom have been adopting innovative approaches, such as welfare outcome assessment, into their routine procedures. In this paper, we present the findings of four consultation exercises, undertaken as part of a review process that examined farmer perspectives on planned or implemented changes to their current certification visits as members of UK-based dairy and laying hen schemes. The changes included the introduction of welfare outcome assessment by assessors, joint-scoring of welfare-outcome measures by farmers and assessors and self-assessment of welfare outcome measures by farmers between assessor visits. This study also explores the challenges that arise when schemes are aiming to adopt a scheme-level continuous improvement approach to promote welfare improvement on participating farms. The key challenges fall under three themes: the purpose and value for the farmer of the assessment of welfare outcomes as part of a farm assurance assessment process; the potential conflict rather than concordance with the role of the farmer in caring for their animals; and finally the technicalities of the assessment process, such as sample sizes for assessment being calibrated for gauging welfare prevalence at a scheme rather than farm level and the role of the farm assurance assessors both to assess impartially compliance against the standards and to provide welfare advice to support improvement. This study highlights that the involvement of farmers at all stages in the development and in the evaluation of outcome assessment initiatives is likely to be beneficial for welfare improvement on-farm.

The Five Domains model is influential in contemporary studies of animal welfare. It was originally presented as a conceptual model to understand the types of impact that procedures may impose on experimental animals. Its application has since broadened to cover a wide range of animal species and forms of animal use. However, it has also increasingly been applied as an animal welfare assessment tool, which is the focus of this paper. Several critical limitations associated with this approach have not been widely acknowledged, including that: (1) it relies upon expert or stakeholder opinion, with little transparency around the selection of these individuals; (2) quantitative scoring is typically attempted despite the absence of clear principles for aggregation of welfare measures and few attempts to account for uncertainty; (3) there have been few efforts to measure the repeatability of findings; and (4) it does not consider indirect and unintentional impacts such as those imposed on non-target animals. These deficiencies lead to concerns surrounding testability, repeatability and the potential for manipulation. We provide suggestions for refinement of how the Five Domains model is applied to partially address these limitations. We argue that the Five Domains model is useful for systematic consideration of all sources of possible welfare compromise and enhancement, but is not, in its current state, fit-for-purpose as an assessment tool. We argue for wider acknowledgment of the operational limits of using the model as an assessment tool, prioritisation of the studies needed for its validation, and encourage improvements to this approach.

Cages for laboratory and pet hamsters are usually small. Using video recordings, the behaviour of sixty female golden hamsters (Mesocricetus auratus), housed individually in four different cage sizes, was compared in order to draw conclusions about their welfare. The cage sizes were 1,800 cm2, 2,500 cm2, 5,000 cm2, and 10,000 cm2. Enrichment items and litter depth were standardised and all cages were equipped with a running-wheel (30 cm diameter). Stereotypic wire-gnawing, usage of the provided space, weight gain, and reactions to mild husbandry stressors were used as welfare indicators. Stereotypic wire-gnawing was observed in all cage sizes, but hamsters in small cages gnawed significantly longer and more frequently. There were no significant differences in running-wheel activity. In small cages hamsters made use of the roof of their wooden shelters as an additional platform more often than in big cages, which could suggest that they needed more space. Therefore, the welfare of pet golden hamsters in cages with a minimal ground floor area of 10,000 cm2 seemed to be enhanced compared with smaller cages.

The welfare of zoo animals depends on a combination of physical, social, dietary and other ecological characteristics of the captive setting. We analysed the influence of the transfer of an adult couple of hamadryas baboons (Papio hamadryas) from a small and non-enriched cage that was closed to the public to a larger and enriched exhibit at the visitation area of the Sapucaia do Sul Zoological Park, RS, Brazil. A total of 350 h divided into four stages were spent observing the baboons: (i) in the non-enriched enclosure before the transfer; (ii) soon after the transfer to the enriched enclosure; (iii) six months; and (iv) 12 months after the transfer. The occurrence of stereotypic, social aggressive and social affiliative behaviours was recorded by ‘all occurrences’ sampling. The female showed a decrease in frequency of a stereotypic behaviour (spinning) and an increase in grooming in the enriched enclosure. The male showed a decrease in the frequency of certain stress-related or stereotypic behaviours after transfer, but other stress-related behaviours either increased or remained constant. The male behaviour of throwing faeces was affected by the presence of visitors. We suggest that the well-being of the female was more positively influenced by the new enclosure than that of the male, although gender differences may reflect the normal behavioural repertoire of this sexually dimorphic species.

Manual blunt force trauma is a common method of euthanasia or culling of goat kids, however it is difficult to apply consistently and may vary in effectiveness. Therefore, a controlled mechanical method is needed. The overall objective of this research was to evaluate the effectiveness of a non-penetrating captive bolt (NPCB) to euthanase goats (Capra hircus) up to 48 h of age. In a pilot study (n = 27), the optimum anatomical site for placement of the NPCB was evaluated using signs of insensibility and death, and post mortem assessment of traumatic brain injury. Three different anatomical sites (frontal bone, poll or behind the poll) were evaluated. In Experiment 1 (n = 100), goats were euthanased using the optimum anatomical placement determined in the pilot study and the presence of brainstem reflexes, rhythmic respiration, convulsions and cardiac activity were recorded. In Experiment 2 (n = 7), electroencephalogram (EEG) was recorded to assess awareness following application of the NPCB. Results from the pilot study showed that immediate insensibility followed by death was achieved when the muzzle of the NPCB was positioned behind the poll and the goat's head was bent so that the chin touched the chest. In Experiment 1, all goats were rendered immediately insensible without return to sensibility prior to cessation of cardiac activity. In Experiment 2, application of the NPCB resulted in the immediate onset of EEG activity which was incompatible with awareness. In conclusion, the NPCB reliably caused immediate insensibility and death in goats up to 48 h of age.

A welfare indicator protocol integrating a total of 38 measures from 4 information sources: housing system, management, animal behaviour and clinical health has been developed for decision support in Automatic Milking System (AMS) herds. Two expert opinion studies focusing on the relevance of the welfare indicator protocol as basis for on-farm welfare assessment have been carried out; one study focused on the opinion of 21 AMS researchers; the other on that of 14 AMS production advisors and 15 veterinary practitioners. The researchers were asked to score the individual welfare relevance of the 38 measures. Furthermore, both the panels were asked to prioritise the 10 most important measures. The 21 researchers generally appreciated the listed protocol measures as highly relevant. The researcher and advisor panels agreed on prioritised measures from all 4 information sources among the 10 most important welfare indicators. In summary, researchers as well as production advisors and veterinarians supported the suggested measures for inclusion in a welfare assessment system. This has demonstrated that integration of different information is considered decisive for operational welfare assessment at herd level.

The stunning of ostriches (Struthio camelus) has traditionally been carried out with hand-held tongs whilst birds are held in a restraining area by applying pressure normally from behind by gently pushing on the tail feathers. The area is often a V-shaped structure, high enough that the stunning operator is not kicked. After stunning, the birds are rocked backwards and a rubberised leg clamp placed over the legs at the tarso-metatarsal bone allowing the birds to be chain-shackled by the big toes. This stunning procedure has been replaced by a new restraining and stunning mechanism which completely envelops the ostrich in a padded clamp holder. Double-padded sides restrain the bird's upper thighs and a rubberised foot clamp holds the feet so there is no physical damage to the bird. As the bird is electrically stunned with electrodes placed both sides of the head, the entire stunning box rotates 180° so that toe clamps can be applied without any danger to the stunning operators. Within 20 s of stunning, the birds are bled by means of a complete ventral cut to the neck and/or by thoracic sticking.

Pododermatitis is a worldwide health and animal welfare problem in captive flamingos (Phoenicopteridae). Since sub-optimal substrate or flooring has been described as a factor in the development of pododermatitis in poultry and raptors, it is also suspected to play a role in flamingo foot health. Small groups of flamingos were separated from the main group in an indoor enclosure with artificial grass carpet and, in earlier years, concrete flooring, with additional fine granular sand in the water basin for the study year. Feet were evaluated before and after the separation. Judged subjectively, foot lesions had shown a general increase in the indoor enclosure in earlier years. In contrast, lesion severity and prevalence, scored in accordance with a standardised protocol, decreased when fine granular sand was provided. Since flamingos were observed mostly standing on sand and as this represented the major differentiating factor between years, it is concluded that fine granular sand is a favourable substrate to maintain, and one that may even lead to an improvement in flamingo foot health.

Negative experiences during feather growth can result in fault bar formation. Fault bars are malformations perpendicular to the rachis of the feather caused by stressful experiences during feather growth. However, there are little data on the causal effect of psychological stress on the formation of fault bars in chickens. The objective of this study was to examine the effect of acute stress in domestic chickens (Gallus gallus domesticus) on fault bar formation to validate this measure as a welfare indicator. Thirty broiler breeder pullets were housed in six cages at 21 days of age. Three cages were exposed to an acute stress protocol while the other three were the unstressed control. Feathers were marked as close as possible to the growing follicle at 21 (wing feathers) and 60 (all feathers) days of age. Acute stress came in the form of three procedures (unpredictable feed delivery, induction of tonic immobility, and crowding) repeated twice, 3-8 days apart and randomly, from 28 to 60 days of age. Wing, tail, and cover feathers were removed and measured at 60 days of age for weight, length, and number of fault bars. Exposure to acute, unpredictable stress increased the number of fault bars in wing feathers of chicks with a high number of initial fault bars. Feather growth decreased for the stressed group compared to the control. These results suggest that feather traits, including fault bars and feather growth, can be used as indicators of negative welfare in chickens.

Pregnant (dry) sows (Sus scrofa) are fed a rationed amount of feed to maintain healthy weight and production but this does not satisfy their hunger. This study measured the extent of feed restriction compared to sows’ desired intake. Forty-seven Large White × Landrace sows were housed in small groups with straw bedding and individual feeding stalls. Following three days on a standard ration of 2.5 kg, they were offered 10 kg a day of commercial dry sow feed for three days, split into four 2.5-kg meals a day which enabled individual intakes to be measured. This quantity was effectively ad libitum (maximum daily intake 9.4 kg). Mean (± SEM) intake per day over the three ad libitum days was 5.67 (± 0.24) kg, compared to the 2.5-kg standard ration. The ration thus provides less than half (44.1%) of sows’ desired intake. Behaviour on their third rationed day was compared with behaviour on the third day of ad libitum. Eating rate and the display of hunger-related behaviours, particularly following the morning feed, was greater under ration feeding; sows spent more time in the food stall and less in the straw bed, and more time active rather than resting. During ration-feeding sows also chewed and nosed more at straw bedding and pen equipment and used the drinker more after their morning meal than when they were fed ad libitum. Eating rate on the last rationed day was positively correlated with feed intake on each of the ad libitum days. Despite an EU requirement for fibre to be added to diets to ameliorate this problem, and the provision of straw bedding, hunger resulting from food restriction remains a welfare concern for dry sows.

The aim of this study was to map farm animal welfare university education in an enlarged Europe with emphasis on identifying existing differences and gaps. Information on 210 courses dealing with farm animal welfare from 98 universities in 26 European countries were obtained. Statistical analysis was carried out on 155 of these courses within animal science or veterinary programmes, at Bachelor and Master level and with the countries grouped into five regions (North West Europe, Mediterranean, West Central Europe, East Central Europe and Balkans). There were significantly more hours of teaching in animal welfare in the North West region of Europe. This region also had more ‘interactive’ education methods, eg group discussion and farm visits, whereas West Central Europe had most ‘transmissive’ methods, eg lecturing. A course was more likely to be given in English in North West Europe (even when the UK and the Republic of Ireland were excluded from the analysis) and East Central Europe compared to West Central Europe and the Balkans. There appeared to be no regional differences in the content of the courses although the focus was significantly more ‘applied’, ie towards welfare assessment and legislation in the veterinary education and more ‘fundamental’, ie oriented towards ethology, physiology and ethics, in the animal science education. In summary, the main differences in farm animal welfare education across Europe seem to be in the reduced number of hours of education, less interactive teaching and fewer courses in English available to students outside the North West region.

In zoo and laboratory colonies of marmosets and tamarins (Callitrichidae) there has been an increasing need to adopt breeding control methods. In zoos, this need has been driven by a growth in populations. In laboratories, increased interest in control options has followed from the requirement to improve welfare by housing potential breeding animals together. Progestagen-containing contraceptive implants or depot-injections, prostaglandin injection regimes, vasectomy and various group-management methods have been used to control reproduction in marmoset and tamarin colonies. There is a need for advances in control techniques suitable for use in zoos. In the meantime, a policy of selective euthanasia or the use of vasectomy are recommended as control methods. In laboratories, although improved control methods are required, a number of techniques have been found to be satisfactory. When there are surplus marmosets and tamarins, the alternatives for their utilization include movement to other colonies, use for studies within zoos or in laboratories, sale to private keepers or euthanasia. Selling these animals privately is not recommended, except in exceptional circumstances. The preferred control option will differ in each circumstance and guidance is given in this paper.

Six commercial hatcheries were visited in the United Kingdom, three of which processed laying hen chicks and three of which processed broiler chicks. The accelerations experienced by the chicks passing through the handling systems were evaluated using miniature data logging accelerometers, which were sent through the systems. The lengths, speeds, and heights of drops of the pathways within each system were also measured. The response of the chicks to the handling was measured in terms of mortality, orientation, righting time (as a measure of disorientation) and tonic immobility. The study showed there to be a range in the physical severity of handling across the hatcheries that could also be seen in terms of differences in the measurements made on the chicks. Nonetheless, the welfare of the chicks passing through the automated systems appeared to be generally acceptable. However, given the velocities and accelerations within these handling systems, there is scope for considerable damage to the chicks, and for poor welfare, if systems are not properly set up or maintained.

Amphibians, like other vertebrates, respond to acute stressors by releasing glucocorticoid steroid hormones that mediate physiological and behavioural responses to stress. Measurement of stress hormones provides a potential means to improve the welfare of laboratory animals. For example, manipulations of laboratory housing and procedures combined with measurement of glucocorticoids may identify which conditions are more stressful to animals. This is important because there is very little experimental evidence to guide best practice for welfare in amphibians and other lower vertebrates. We investigated the effect of different methods of euthanasia on the circulating plasma corticosterone levels in the African clawed frog (Xenopus laevis), a model amphibian organism that is frequently used in laboratories. In particular, we investigated the effect of different concentrations and pH of the anaesthetic tricaine methanesulphonate (MS-222). Low concentration and unbuffered (low pH) solutions of MS-222 caused elevated corticosterone levels, but only after the effect of MS-222 treatment on blood fluid volume had been taken into account. The level of disturbance that animals experienced also affected corticosterone levels. Thus, our data suggest that to minimise stress to X. laevis, animals should be euthanised after minimal disturbance and in a 3 g L−1 MS-222 solution, buffered to pH 7. The potential for the improvement of amphibian welfare using corticosterone measures as a tool is discussed.

At least one-third of the land on earth is used for agricultural production and conflicts with the interests of wildlife are inevitable. These conflicts are likely to escalate as the human population expands and as the scale and intensity of agricultural production increases. This paper argues that the same underlying causes frequently affect both wild animal welfare and conservation. Three key threats are discussed: disease transmission from domestic animals and the interventions used to manage wildlife reservoirs of zoonotic diseases; physical operations such as harvesting and the conversion of wildlife habitat to farmland; and the use of agrochemicals, particularly for pest control. While direct effects, such as accidental poisoning, tend to attract the most public attention, it is argued that indirect effects, such as the reduction in food supplies or the disruption of social structures, are likely to be of greater importance. The suffering of pest animals has traditionally been undervalued. There is a need for broader adoption of integrated, ecologically based strategies which minimise suffering and also minimise the numbers of animals involved by preventing population resurgence. New research is urgently required to compare the effects of alternative, economically viable farming strategies on both wildlife conservation and welfare, possibly within the framework of ecosystem services assessments.

Sheep transport within Europe involves 9.5 million animals yearly, 63% of which travel over long journeys (> 8 h). Livestock transport, particularly over long journeys, gives rise to concern about the welfare of transported animals. The European Commission stimulates the development of market-oriented animal welfare standards for all phases of livestock production, providing an alternative to the ‘regulatory approach’. This study aimed to develop and test a new sheep welfare assessment protocol to be used following transport, irrespective of the journey purpose. The protocol included outcome (animal-based measures) and input variables (resource-based and management-based measures), being welfare-relevant aspects of both transport and unloading procedures. Weighted Cohen's Kappa and Fleiss’ Kappa index of agreement were calculated to evaluate the raters accuracy and the inter-observer reliability. Overall, good agreement levels were found. The protocol was tested on 40 commercial transports arriving at previously selected assembly centres and slaughterhouses in Italy and Greece. The protocol was found to be feasible when applied to commercial transports, allowing for a comprehensive and quick sheep welfare assessment during unloading, wthout impairing stockman work. Univariate analysis was carried out to evaluate associations between outcome and input variables. In this study, significant association between outcome measures and risk factors were identified when associated to unloading procedures but not to travel conditions. In collaboration with the relevant stakeholders, this protocol might be developed into a tool for routine checks for certification purposes and could provide direct feedback to all professionals involved in animal transportation on the weaknesses and strengths of their work.

The barren housing conditions of farmed blue foxes (Alopex lagopus) provide few stimuli to motivate exploration and interaction with the physical environment. In the present study, wooden blocks (30x7 cm [lxdia]) were employed to clarify how such inanimate objects might serve to enrich the barren wire-mesh cages. Two separate experiments were carried out. In experiment 1, behavioural reactions of eight male blue foxes to wooden blocks were videotaped between January and May. In experiment 2, 16 male blue foxes were housed singly in cages with wooden blocks and 16 without between January and June. Pencil, confrontation, feeding and open field tests were carried out. Furthermore, 50 female blue foxes were kept singly in cages with wooden blocks and 49 without from January to July. Both groups were bred and the whelping result was recorded. In-cage behavioural tests were performed three times. Results showed that interactions with the wooden blocks were frequent, averaging 77 interactions fox’1 day1. Interactions with blocks decreased slightly with time. Blocks were mainly used for carrying, chewing, poking and sniffing. In the confrontation test, male foxes housed without blocks were more passive than those with blocks. No differences were found between the groups in the pencil, feeding or open field tests. Whelping success tended to be better for vixens housed with than without blocks. It can be concluded that wooden blocks have enrichment value by providing more choices for foxes in a barren cage and stimulating more variable behaviour.