Organic diacid (oxalic and succinic) adsorption onto montmorillonite is feasible, but weak (~1 mg/g). The comparison of chemical and radiochemical determinations reveals that 80% of the acid in contact with the smectite is used to attack the clay lattice. The pH is the main parameter involved in adsorption, and fixation passes through a minimum for pH 6 to 7. Polyacrylate adsorption is also weak (~1.5 mg/g). It changes with the nature of the exchangeable cation of smectite. Its pH-dependence displays a pronounced maximum for a value corresponding to the pKa of the acidic functions (pH ~6.8), and a minimum at about pH 8. On the assumption that a polyacrylate macromolecule is 100% hydrolyzed, it follows that the-COOH groups carried by 20% hydrolyzed Polyacrylamide molecules (such as those used in the tertiary recovery of petroleum) contribute at the very most to 10% of the total adsorption onto clay. Fixation, therefore, involves predominantly protonation of the amide functions at the edge surfaces of the clay. The acidic functions play a minor role in the adsorption phenomenon in that they affect the length of the macromolecule. The extent of this contribution, however, is virtually impossible to estimate.

The oxidative power of a smectite can be measured quantitatively by oxidation of hydro-quinone to p-benzoquinone in a clay slurry. Oxidation takes place in the presence of O2 (air) but not N2 unless Fe3+ or Cu2+ are the exchangeable cations. This study examined 26 smectite samples with varying compositions and processing. The oxidative power increases with decreasing Li-fixation and increasing cation exchange capacity. Li-fixation does not depend upon the tetrahedral Al. The cation exchange capacity can decrease markedly by mere storage in water.

The oxidation proceeds principally on the surface by adsorbed oxygen molecules or radicals. A mechanism is proposed. With Fe3+ or Cu2+ present, even under N2, oxidation occurs via electron transfer. With smectites containing Fe2+, both the Fe and the hydroquinone are oxidized in the same reaction.

For a good while, men of high intelligence have been extolling a strictly descriptive phenomenological theory of art, concerned with the work of art itself and with its effect upon the spectator or the audience. Moreover, theories exist which tend in this direction, but sometimes they are still contaminated with the methods of psychological aesthetics, and sometimes they devote too much effort to combating those methods and to defining their own theory rather than putting it to the test of application.

The work of art is an object that exists solely for the human understanding, but which exists for it objectively—that is to say, outside or beyond individual variations of perception. Anyone who wishes to achieve results in this field—provisional results, to be sure, but at least concrete and capable of being verified or corrected—must describe both the common denominators and the distinctive traits of such objects.

There are two pitfalls which constantly threaten the literary historian who seeks the origins or beginnings of works of the mind such as species of literature or forms of religion, as well as the examples which partake of both. One danger is that the study may become an artificial construction without sufficient concrete basis in proved historical facts; the other is that the author may prefer experience to such constructions and may be too much influenced by what he has known and been impressed with as origin and beginning in his own time. The latter has at least one advantage: where there is no experience at the outset of an investigation, not even that minimum of empeiria which I shall call, with the Greek poet Aleman, peira (peira toi mathesios archa, “experience is the beginning of knowledge”), then there can be no scholarship in the fields of literature, art, and religion. In the history of those three fields we can be competently guided only by “veterans”—not mere theoreticians but men who in a sense are also “practitioners” in the creating of works of the mind. Experience takes first place not only in the natural sciences but also in modern scholarship in these areas, even with the risk that it may be too personal, too time-bound, too small in scope.

à Mauritz Friis
en souvenir des soirées
de Görväln et de Pampachica

Francisco was born in 1573 in the old capital of the Incas, a pretty town stretching along a high valley of the Andes 11,000 feet above sea level but close enough to the earth's breast to enjoy a gentle springtime throughout the year, even in winter. 1573: forty-two years since the first Spaniards, three of them, reached the city as emissaries of the conqueror, who was then especially occupied with the last Inca whom he held prisoner in a northern village and of whom he demanded an enormous ransom. Guided and protected by officers of the empire, they came to hasten the despoiling of temples and palaces and to collect vases and plaques of gold ordered by Atahualpa, who vainly hoped to gain his freedom. Three years later, on March 23,1534, before an astonished crowd of Indians, opening a new era in the name of the king and the pope, the founding of the new Spanish and Christian order in Cuzco solemnly took place. Then, one after another, material catastrophes occurred: in 1536 the conqueror's brother, the first governor, endured the siege of an army of twenty thousand Indians commanded by a phantom Inca, the second Manco, and the city, its thatched roofs ravaged by fire, was blown up by mines and countermines; in 1538 the newly rebuilt houses were destroyed by the rivalry of Pizarro and Almagro; in 1541, after the assassination of the former, new troubles caused new ruins.

Thomas Hardy's The Mayor of Casterbridge attracts the attention of ethnologists who are interested by the symbolical analysis of kingship. Although this book does not deal with the theme of kingship as such, it overlaps it on a mythical level. It is a novel about the rise and fall of a man, Henchard, whose initial act is to sell his wife and daughter; in order to commit this act he deviates from the context of the human norm by way of drunkenness. He then enjoys great success as a corn merchant and becomes mayor of the town. Twenty years after this the graph of his destiny starts to fall with the arrival of a young man named Farfrae, who eventually ousts Henchard from his business as well as from his political position, and who goes to the length of taking over not only Henchard's mistress, Lucetta, but also his daughter, Elizabeth-Jane.

What I would like to explore in this short paper is the possibility of a theoretical interpretation of a social dialectic of emergence. I shall not be concerned to criticize or defend the dialectical method in social theory as such, but rather to give one interesting interpretation of it. In so doing, I have chosen two applications which I shall use to show what is meant here by emergence. The first of these treats ideological development in American advanced capitalism, the second examines certain aspects of Soviet Russian development. Both applications are schematic and require further fleshing out. So I put my views forth here only in an exploratory way. Employing the categories used in this paper, I am now preparing a more detailed study of the ideological development of Zionism, to be published subsequently. This latter study may provide more concrete answers to some of the issues raised in the present paper.

pH- and conductometric titration curves of acid sauconite, freshly prepared by the action of H-resin on sauconite showed four segments, each, where H+, Al3+ and Zn2+ ions and a weak acid reacted with the added base in the sequence mentioned. The H+, Al3+ and Zn2+ ions, but not the weak acid, could be exchanged for the cations of a neutral salt. The exchangeable Al3+ and Zn2+ ions were derived from the lateral surfaces by the action of the H-resin. When the acid sauconite was allowed to age in water, the exchangeable H+ and Al3+ ions were gradually replaced by Zn2+ ions giving, finally, a Zn-clay. The pH rose from 4·2 to 6·3 and the total amount of exchangeable cations increased as aging proceeded. When the Zn-clay was formed, the increase in cation exchange capacity was about 70 per cent. Octahedral Al at the edges, carrying positive charges, were discharged by hydrolysis during the aging, causing the net negative charge and, hence, cation exchange capacity, to increase. Aging had little effect on the amount of the weak acid. Zn and Al ions at the edges exhibited the weak acid function. Only edge-Zn was active in the fully aged clay.

Culture is a pillow-word; it shapes itself according to the head resting upon it. In 1968, a group of experts convened by UNESCO defined it as the means by which all goals are articulated, or as the sum of the means created by man to ensure his existence or communicate with his fellows. Another meeting in 1970 took up this definition again, and posited culture as the sum total of knowledge and modes of thought and action which allow man to order his own behavior, his relationships with other men and nature.

The nature of interstratification in mixed-layer illite-montmorillonites has been investigated by comparison of diffraction patterns of ethylene glycol and ethylene glycol monoethyl ether treated samples with calculated one-dimensional diffraction profiles. The calculated profiles take into account the effects of particle size distribution, chemical composition, and convolution factors as well as proportions of layers and interstratification type. On the basis of detailed matching of diffraction patterns of monomineralic illite-montmorillonites of known chemical composition it is concluded that there are three types of interstratification: (1) random, (2) allevardite-like ordering, and (3) superlattice units consisting of three illite and one montmorillonite layers (IMII). By comparison of suites of calculated profiles with the diffraction patterns of many samples of illite-montmorillonites it is concluded that virtually all illite-montmorillonites with expandabilities from about 40 to 100 per cent are randomly interstratified (allevardite being exceptional); at >40 per cent montmorillonite layers they almost always have ordered interstratification. Allevardite-like ordering predominates in illitemontmorillonites which have ordered interstratification, with the IMII superlattice varieties confined to samples with about 10 per cent montmorillonite layers.

The remarks which follow deal with the ideas which I developed in more detail in my book: between Experience and Metaphysics. They are inspired principally by the vigorous polemic aroused by the publication several years ago of a work which caused a great uproar in epistemological circles; I am speaking of The Structure of Scientific Revolution by T.S. Kuhn. One could thus consider this essay, as well as my book, as an element to be added to that polemic's dossier. It goes without saying that I am indebted to a great number of those who before me have given their points of view on the question, whether I agree with their opinions or not.

The adsorption of CO2 at low temperature (~ -70°C) on thin films of homoionic smectites was studied by X-ray diffraction and by i.r. absorption. An increase in the d001 spacings of these clay films upon adsorption of CO2 was observed. In addition, a dichroic effect was readily discernible by comparing the i.r. spectra at two different orientations of the smectite films; i.e. with the film normal and tilted 35° with respect to the i.r. beam. The CO2 stretching vibration at 2350 cm-1 was used for the i.r. study. These observations conclusively show that CO2 intercalates the smectite structure rather than being adsorbed only in pores between clay tactoids—the limiting process proposed by other investigators.

Adsorption isotherm data from earlier surface area studies are re-examined here through application of the Dubinin equation. Again, intercalation is demonstrated by convergence of the plotted experimental data for smectites containing large monovalent interlayer cations toward a pore volume that is near the calculated theoretical value for a monolayer of intercalated CO2.

Scanning electron photomicrographs of Li- and Cs- smectites provide additional evidence that aggregation differences are not responsible for the large observed difference in BET surface areas obtained for these smectites with CO2 as the adsorbate. At low magnification, visual differences in macro-aggregates are apparent, but at high magnification no significant differences are observed in the micro-structure of individual aggregates where the major amount of gas adsorption really occurs.

The social role, and consequently the social status, of writers has been recently undergoing interesting transformations. They are not yet always taken into account in the sociology of literature, even though that role (or, strictly speaking, roles) in the second half of the 20th century in many respects differs markedly from that in the first half of this century, or, to adopt a conventional demarcation line, before World War II. These transformations have not yet fully crystallized, but it is legitimate to think that we are witnessing processes whose consequences will be better seen in the next century. On the other hand, prior to World War

II the role of writers did not in fact differ so much from that which they performed in the 19th century, if we disregard certain specifically Polish aspects of the problem, which are not to be discussed here in greater detail. Let it be mentioned only that those specific aspects were fairly numerous: the traditions of the old-style intelligentsia as a social stratum; the role of writers as “the conscience of the nation” in the period when Poland was partitioned by the three great powers; the economic and technological backwardness of Poland in the 19th and in the first half of the 20th century; still now restricted development of mass media and mass culture.

Various kaolinites, a dickite and halloysites have been treated by DMSO in presence of D2O and subsequently washed by D2O. This procedure allowed to record OD stretching bands which are due specifically to the intercalated fraction and, for the washed samples, to the fraction of the solid which has been intercalated and has subsequently collapsed.

No structural difference is found between the intercalated materials prepared from the various minerals. Washing usually restores the starting mineral; however, for a non-tubular halloysite, DMSO intercalation and subsequent washing gave a product similar to kaolinite.