Forbidden areas, i.e. areas (sites, cities, countries) that are inaccessible for topographical reasons or especially because of decisions based on political, religious, or other motivations are usually surrounded by an aura of mystery and almost necessarily arouse curiosity. The dream of generations of explorers was to reach Lhasa. An area can be closed not only to outsiders but also to “insiders:” nobody is allowed to leave for the “outside.” The isolation imposed on Japan by the Tokugawa regime was such a two-way seclusion aided, of course, by geographical conditions and hence easily enforceable. It has been suggested, perhaps not quite seriously, that the famous Chinese wall was meant not only to keep out barbarian invaders, but also to prevent Chinese from leaving. That there was some kind of border control is also suggested by the leger, according to which Lao-tse, before disappearing into the west, committed his teaching, the Tao-te-kinq, to writing at the request of the “gatekeeper.” One may well wonder whether there exists another equally influential text written at the behest of a border policeman!

This article considers the relationship of two prominent leaders of British women’s temperance, Lady Henry Somerset and Lady Elizabeth Biddulph. They were noteworthy for taking opposing sides when the British Women’s Temperance Association divided on the question of the political reach of its work. Somerset and Biddulph were elite women, daughters of earls and near neighbours around Ledbury, a centre of cider apple and hop cultivation in Herefordshire. Both made their first temperance pledge in the area. We examine their geographical proximity and consider the importance of local agricultural labour and landscapes to their temperance work.

‘Culturology’ is an integral, often compulsory, part of Russian university courses; the discipline has largely replaced chairs in Marxist-Leninism and dialectical materialism, and bookshops are full of texts on the subject. This article is based on analysis of more than ten university textbooks recommended to first-year students. Marlène Laruelle examines why culturology has become so important, the place claimed for it within the human sciences, and what it means for changing Russian ideas of identity and nation.

Hydroxy-chromium solutions were prepared from chromium nitrate solutions by adding NaOH with OH/Cr = 2.

The solutions were treated at 20°C and 60°C. The hydrolysis times were from 1 to 100 days. Polymeric species in hydrolyzed chromium solutions were followed by visible absorption spectra within the range 325–800 nm and by pH measurement. OH-Cr-smectite with high d(001) spacing (2.07 nm) was obtained when hydroxy-chromium solution was prepared at 60°C and with 1-day hydrolysis. When this sample was heated up to 350°C the basal spacing collapsed at 1.8 nm.

The samples were characterized by X-ray diffraction and N2 adsorption-desorption isotherms.

The genre of the ‘historical film’, or ‘history film’, is protean to such a degree that it is possible to grasp its true nature only by studying the relationships it entertains with history, which is the sole common denominator capable of validating it and of providing an angle of attack for dealing with questions (such as ‘Does this film conform to historical reality?’ and ‘Is it a faithful reconstruction?’) that have more to do with movie-buff criticism or erudition than with a process of reasoning properly seeking to establish a semiotics of the cinematographic representation of history.

Experimental alteration of volcanic tuff from Almeria, southeastern Spain, was performed in solutions with different Na/K ratios (0.01, 1, 10, and 100), different total salt concentrations (0.01, 0.1, 0.2, 0.33, and 1 M), and in deionized water, at 60, 80, 120, and 160°C, for periods of 60, 90, 180, and 360 d. Two particle size fractions of volcanic tuff were used: 10–200 and 20–60 μm. Alteration products were examined by X-ray diffraction (XRD), Fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR), laser-particle size analysis, scanning electron microscopy equipped with an energy dispersive X-ray spectrometer (SEM-EDS), image computer analysis, and transmission electron microscopy with microanalysis (TEM-AEM). XRD detected neoformed phases only in the products from experiments of 180–360 d at high temperatures (120–160°C), and with Na/K ratios above unity and in deionized water. The synthesized phase is a random mixed-layer illite-smectite (I-S) with 75% smectite. The quantity of newly formed I-S, determined by FTIR, ranged between 3–30%. There was no apparent change in grain size and shape of the grains after the experiments as compared to before.

SEM-EDS and TEM-AEM revealed the following alteration sequence: 1) intense etching on glass-grain surfaces; 2) formation of hemispherical morphologies on grain surfaces; 3) precipitation of very thin, individual flakes of illite-smectite on glass-grain surfaces; 4) development of I-S at the edges of glass grains; and 5) development of I-S honeycomb structures either covering large areas of the glass grains or resulting from the complete alteration of glass grains. A direct transformation of glass to I-S seems to be the major reaction mechanism, although there also is evidence of glass dissolution and subsequent I-S precipitation.

Fundamental particle thickness measurements of Dolná Ves hydrothermal illite/smectite (I/S) samples confirmed earlier findings regarding the content of fixed cations in illite interlayers (ca. 0.9/O10(OH)2). The distributions of fundamental particles and mixed-layer crystals of a given sample are internally consistent. In samples dominated by bilayer fundamental particles, mixed-layer crystals most often contain even numbers of layers. The expandabilities measured by XRD are much higher than so-called minimum expandabilities obtained from HRTEM measurements. This discrepancy is explained by assuming that the coherent scattering domains of Dolná Ves clays do not correspond to natural mixedlayer crystals but are thicker, probably due to parallel association of crystals on the oriented XRD slide. This tendency to produce intercrystal contacts is probably related to the unusually large ab dimensions of crystals of Dolná Ves clays.

The smectite-to-illite diagenetic transformation has been documented in 5 different sedimentary basins using X-ray diffraction (XRD). Intermediate reaction products coexisting because of the effect of kinetics on this reaction have been characterized using decomposition of XRD patterns and comparison with calculated patterns. The nature and relative abundances of the various subpopulations of particles are shown to vary as a function of the geothermal gradient and of the age of the sediment. In all sedimentary basins that experienced a low steady geothermal gradient the physico-chemical characteristics (coherent scattering domain size [CSDS], junction probabilities) of intermediate mixed-layered illite-smectites (I-S) are similar. However, both the relative abundance and the crystallinity of the end-member illite increase as a function of the age of the sediment.

In basins that have experienced a higher geothermal gradient, the CSDS of the I-S subpopulation is higher for a given illite content, indicating a slightly different reaction pathway. This difference in the characteristics (peak position and width) of elementary peaks may be used to infer the presence of such a high geothermal gradient when no other data are conclusive. In this case the growth of the illite end-member is favored over the growth of intermediate I-S phases even in young basins. Illitic phases formed from the alteration of kaolin minerals exhibit characteristics similar to the reaction products of the smectite-to-illite diagenetic transformation in the case of a high geothermal gradient. In contrast with what is observed in shale diagenesis, the characteristics of the illitic subpopulations describe a continuum with absolutely no gap in between subpopulations. In sandstone reservoirs, the various subpopulations crystallize simultaneously from a kaolin precursor. As a consequence, no kinship is expected between the various subpopulations.

The cation exchange capacity (CEC) of fine-grained materials, and especially clay minerals, is a fundamental property of these materials, and can be determined routinely. A search of the recent literature illustrates the great interest of this property to researchers. For example, a search of the GeoRef database for references to “cation exchange capacity” for the years 1980 to 1999 yields 2559 citations.

Continuous wave and pulsed electron paramagnetic resonance spectroscopies combined with thermal and chemical methods were used to identify and characterize V(TV), Fe(III), Mn(II) and Cr(III) in a multimineral system that consists of vermiculite and impurities of carbonates. All of these transition metals were structure-bound in mineral phases. The V(IV) was located in octahedral layers of the vermiculite and became oxidized to V(V) during the transformation of the host mineral to enstatite at about 800 °C. The Fe(III) was associated with the vermiculite as well as the carbonate impurities. The Fe(III) identified in the vermiculite was transferred into the enstatite structure during the thermal conversion. An indirect proof of Fe(III) and Cr(III) in the impurities was found in the heated samples in which these cations occurred in Ca and/or Mg oxides that were formed by transformation of the carbonates. The Mn(II) in the untreated samples was associated with the impurities and was also detected in oxides formed from the samples heated at 600 °C.

After several recent special issues, conceived and prepared successively by R. H. Robbins and E. M. Uhlenbeck (no. 153, ‘The Cultural Heritage: Languages in Peril”), Y. M. Coppens (no. 155, “From the Heavens to the Mind”), M. Matarasso (no. 158, “Shamans and Shamanism: On the Threshold of a New Millennium”), Diogenes turned to Julio Labastida, coordinator of the study of the social sciences at the National University of Mexico and contributing editor to Diogenes (he is in charge of the Spanish edition), and asked him to gather together for the current issue a certain number of articles devoted to themes related to the five-hundredth anniversary of America's “discovery” and its entry into a unified world.

There is a hint of paradox in opening this collection of texts on the procedures for totalizing knowledge in Antiquity by calling to witness the Platonic dialogues. What might they contribute, besides a critique of Sophistic polymathy, Socrates’ nescience, his way of jumping in and interrupting long discourses, the disconcerting interlude of preliminary questions, and the aporetic collapses? A host of questions does not make a book, much less a library - unless the Socratic stratagem defines some entirely new conditions, or unless Plato's argument authorizes, beyond a program of study, a way of constituting knowledge with its hierarchized elements and the articulations called for by this program. A few remarks are in order here.

Iron-manganese concretions are common in upper sola of Alfisols in the Inner Bluegrass Region of Kentucky. Their nature and quantities appear to be related to the fluctuation of seasonal perched water tables above clayey argillic horizons. This study was conducted to examine changes in the macro-and micromorphology, chemistry and mineralogy of concretions as a function of size, color and soil depth. Total Mn and Fe contents increased, while SiO2 decreased with concretion size. Black concretions contained higher Mn, while brown concretions were higher in Fe. Crystalline Mn- and Fe-oxides fractionated with a sequential extraction procedure increased, but amorphous Mn and Fe decreased with concretion size. Goethite was the only crystalline Fe oxide mineral identified by X-ray diffraction (XRD) analysis. Manganese oxide minerals were very difficult to detect due to the diffuse nature of their XRD peaks and poor crystallinity. Examination of soil thin sections showed concretions of soil horizons overlying restrictive clayey layers to exhibit differentiated fabrics, sharp external boundaries and generally spherical shapes. Concretions found within clayey restrictive layers or above lithic interfaces usually had less structural organization, softer matrices and diffuse external boundaries due to longer term saturated conditions. Scanning electron microscopy (SEM) examinations suggested that the concretionary matrix, in spite of its density, has numerous cavities and an extensive micropore system within which dissolved plasmic Fe and Mn can diffuse and precipitate.

Aoun and Li (2003) argued that whether the head of Chinese relative clauses can reconstruct at Logical Form is determined by its phrasal category. When the head is a noun phrase, it can reconstruct; but when it is a quantifier phrase, it cannot. This paper uses a sentence-picture matching experiment to investigate this claim. The results showed that a quantifier phrase can reconstruct. Thus, we do not need to stipulate a noun phrase/quantifier phrase distinction for the reconstruction of heads in Chinese relative clauses. Both types of phrases can reconstruct, predicted by the head-raising analysis of relative clauses.

Certified organic farming is a suite of regulated practices that can support social, economic, and ecological sustainability in agriculture. Despite the standardization and regulation of certifying bodies, practices adopted by organic farmers vary with potential heterogeneous effects on environmental outcomes. While it is accepted that beliefs can enable or constrain the adoption of farming practices, it remains unclear if variation in organic farmer beliefs mediates observed heterogeneity in practices and the ecology of farms. Communities of soil microorganisms that induce plant resistance and regulate insect herbivores offer a lens to explore the relationship between beliefs and practice adoption. Variation in insect herbivores across organic farms is common but none have studied the role of farmer beliefs in regulating pests through the soil microbiome. Herein, we hypothesized that variation in adoption of microbiome-supportive practices by organic farmers is driven by heterogeneity in their microbiome beliefs. We also investigate the importance of demographic variables and farm characteristics, compared to farmer beliefs, for adoption of practices that support the microbiome. To test our hypothesis, we surveyed the microbiome beliefs, farming practices, and motivations of 85 organic farmers in New York State, USA. We used affinity propagation to cluster farmers by their beliefs, and statistical models to evaluate variation in farming practice adoption and farmer motivations. Our survey received a 30.5% response rate, most organic farmers (≈96%) believed the soil microbiome was important for supporting plant defenses and reducing pests, and <16% believed their farming practices were unimportant for promoting beneficial microbiomes. Seven clusters of farmers were identified that varied in their microbiome beliefs. Among the clusters ≈42% of farmers believed on-farm management and external factors (e.g., climate change) were important for promoting the microbiome. These farmers used fewer pesticides and synthetic mulches, more pre-planting practices (e.g., solarization), and were more motivated to adopt new practices to support the microbiome than their peers. The most important factors motivating adoption were reductions in pests, increased yields, and biodiversity benefits. Beliefs, demographics, and farm characteristics (e.g., time in organic management) were correlated with similar suites of farming practices, but only beliefs predicted farmer motivations. Our study suggests beliefs are key to understanding farmer motivations and promoting organic farming system sustainability via the pest-suppressive microbiome. More broadly, we suggest the need for socio-ecological approaches that account for farmer beliefs when studying the adoption of conservation practices in agroecosystems.