Despite increasing evidence regarding the efficacy of risk assessment and intervention in community supervision, there continues to be relatively weak adherence to such evidence in its application to decision-making. Regarding assessment, such a lack of fidelity purportedly leads to higher rates of overrides, degraded accuracy, and inefficiency in resource allocation. Regarding intervention, failure to implement evidence-based practice and recognize the role of probation officers as agents of change further diminishes supervision effectiveness. With probation populations at an all-time high and a burgeoning violation rate, this chapter summarizes the emerging probation research to situate the need for clarity of purpose and improved decision-making to maintain public confidence in probation. The chapter presents a decision framework utilizing empirically informed domains as a logic model to ensure probation officer decisions are fair, transparent, and defensible. This framework incorporates both static and dynamic information to ensure decisions are accurate and contextual.

This chapter focuses on the United Nation’s largest development entity, the United Nations Development Programme (UNDP), and asks: When and why has it integrated climate adaptation into its mandate? It traces UNDP’s evolving adaptation mandate from 1990 to 2015, drawing on over fifty interviews and an extensive analysis of primary documents. It argues that UNDP Administrators, rather than states, played a critical role in mandate expansion. Administrators decided whether and how to integrate adaptation into UNDP’s mandate and subsequently lobbied states to endorse any expansion. It also suggests that UNDP’s expansion was facilitated by its early access to multilateral climate trust funds. This chapter makes an important contribution to existing theories of international bureaucracies, which often assume that organizational change is state-driven (statist explanations) or that bureaucracies will always seek to expand (principal–agent and constructivism). Overall, it suggests scholars should look at how leaders navigate financial, ideational, and normative environment to understand change and influence in international institutions.

This chapter examines the main stages of economic growth and structural change in the Portuguese and Spanish economies and explains the main differences between them and the core European countries. Besides presenting these stages, the chapter also measures the contribution of structural change to economic growth in the long term. Then, the chapter disaggregates further within the three sectors to determine the leading industries at each stage of economic transformation. Finally, the contribution of these sectors to economic growth is studied. Both Iberian countries were latecomers in industrialization and also in agricultural success. With a late start in the mid-nineteenth century in relation to the core European countries, due to both poor factor endowments and institutions, they advanced in terms of structural change during the interwar period and experienced post-1950 growth miracles. Major changes took place when technological change and foreign markets were adapted to their factor endowments. The main differences were the slow path of Portugal in relation to Spain, structural change was less important, with agriculture having a lower (higher) and services a higher (lower) share of GDP and employment during the nineteenth century with the opposite being the case in the twentieth century respectively.

This chapter considers children’s right to education and the protection of children’s rights in a school environment. Despite the importance of education to children, their right to education and to participation in school is conspicuously absent from much legislation and policy concerning schools. This chapter considers the extent to which children are recognised as rights-holders at school. It starts by considering school attendance, truancy and the punitive approach to parents who are unable to secure their child’s regular attendance at school. It then considers pupil behaviour and school discipline. The prevalence of bullying and peer abuse in schools raises the importance of protecting the rights of affected pupils to an education in a safe environment that ensures that they are all respected. Responding to this behaviour also raises the rights of perpetrators, particularly in the context of school discipline, the use of force and power to search pupils. The chapter then considers the law on exclusion and the right to education. Finally, it considers the extent to which children have a right to attend sex education and the extent of parental right to object.

This chapter deals with the konungasögur, the sagas of the Norwegian and Danish kings. Taking a chronological approach, it outlines the development of the genre from the Icelandic, Danish and Norwegian histories of the twelfth century through to the major compilations of the thirteenth century (Morkinskinna, Fagrskinna and Heimskringla) and the substantial manuscript collections of the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries, such as Flateyjarbók. It stresses the diversity of the sources which the authors of the kings’ sagas incorporated within their works, emphasizing the fundamentally intertextual nature of the konungasaga genre. In discussing the growth of the genre, it highlights the variety of voices, sources and modes contained within these sagas, exemplified in their different approaches to the skaldic verses quoted within their prosimetric structure. Placing Old Norse-Icelandic historiography within the context of historical writing in medieval Europe, the chapter argues that the kings’ sagas offer a polyphonic history of the medieval north, and in doing so explore the process of history-writing itself.

This introduction highlights the prevailing uncertainty regarding the meaning of a ‘use of force’ under article 2(4) of the UN Charter and customary international law. It sets out the key research questions that this monograph addresses regarding the meaning of ‘use of force’ under jus ad bellum, including if ‘force’ means physical/armed force only and whether kinetic means or the use of particular weapons required, if a (potential) physical effect is required and the required nature of such effects, if there is a de minimis gravity threshold, and if a coercive or hostile intent is required. It also explains why the definition of prohibited force matters and its consequences under international law, including with respect to the gap between ‘use of force’ under article 2(4) and ‘armed attack’ under article 51 as well as the rise of grey zone operations. Finally, it sets out the aims and contributions of this monograph and an outline of its structure.

Introduction

People are at the centre of the SDGs, and while some SDGs are directly aimed at improving people's lives and living, such as eradication of poverty (SDG1) and hunger (SDG2), health (SDG3), education (SDG4), clean water and sanitation (SDG5), and work and economic growth (SDG8), others are meant for society as a whole, like gender equality (SDG5), reduced inequality (SDG10), and peace, justice and strong institutions (SDG16). As discussed in Chapter 3, the SDGs can be grouped in different ways, for example, in five categories, called the five Ps:

• ■ People: SDG1, SDG2, SDG3, SDG4 and SDG5

• ■ Planet: SDG6, SDG12, SDG13, SDG14, SDG15

• ■ Prosperity: SDG7, SDG8, SDG9, SDG10, SDG11

• ■ Peace: SDG16

• ■ Partnership: SDG17.

Or they can be grouped in the three categories, as the economic, social and environment SDGs:

• 1 Economic SDGs

• (a) Life: SDG1, SDG2 and SDG3

• (b) Economic and technological development: SDG8 and SDG9

• 2 Social SDGs

• (a) Equity: SDG4, SDG5 and SDG10

• (b) Social Development: SDG11, SDG16 and SDG17

• 3 Environmental SDGs

• (a) Resources: SDG6, SDG7, SDG12 and SDG14

• (b) Environment: SDG13 and SDG15.

Given that data is now considered as the ‘oil’ for the digital era (Economist, 2017), ICT (information and communication technology) and data form the foundation of progress in all the SDGs and their Targets. Access to the internet has significantly impacted society – people's lives and living. It is now considered as one of the key requirements for making progress in any area of life and living in the digital era. Therefore, it is the key Indicator to measure the growth of the information society.

The 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development recognises that ‘the spread of information and communications technology and global interconnectedness has great potential to accelerate human progress, to bridge the digital divide and to develop knowledge societies’ (ITU, 2020, 1). Therefore, the SDG Indicator 17.8.1 specifically aims to measure how people in different countries access the internet, and can help to measure the digital divide.

Though ICT and data form the foundation of progress in all the SDG Targets, the level of access to, and use of, the internet for access to information is still a far-off goal for many people, and this creates a digital divide in society.

The privatization of government functions has given rise to instrumental questions concerning the execution of these functions. Proponents often hail the efficiency of private institutions, while opponents often speak of the accountability of public institutions. This chapter challenges the instrumentalist terms of this debate. It establishes that there are principled, noninstrumentalist arguments against the privatization of certain goods. More particularly, it argues that there are goods that are “inherently public,” namely that they cannot be provided by private entities, even in principle.

The chapter also maintains that to count as an act of the state, the person who provides the good (the key case studies are inflicting criminal punishment and waging wars) must be a public official. To defend this latter position, the chapter develops an abstract account of public officials as agents who defer to the state’s judgments.

Creating options is an exciting and fun part of making decisions. It’s what changes “I have to do this” (reluctantly solving a problem) to “I get to do this” (enthusiastically creating an opportunity). People often excuse their decisions by saying, “I didn’t have a choice – it’s just something I had to do.” But that’s rarely true. Decision options are almost always available.

If one young person is about to make a decision, helping them construct options is relatively straightforward. Once they are clear about which values might be affected, they can generate different options likely to satisfy these qualities.

Psychologists are often called in personal injury and workplace discrimination cases to help determine the extent of psychological damages (e.g., psychological trauma). We apply a rigorous five-stage temporal model to guide forensic evaluators in providing a robust, evidence-based psychological perspective on the nature and extent of the injury, how that injury arose, and the effects of that injury in the future. Functionality of the plaintiff is assessed in daily activities, in the workplace, in intimate relationships, in social and recreational activities, and in relation to their family. Systematic analysis of the functioning of the plaintiff in these areas from the period before the legally relevant event until litigation concludes allows decisions to be made about the nature and source of any impairments. This method includes consideration of alternative hypotheses, integral to decisions about causation. Psychologists’ decisions thus affect outcomes for injured parties. Future research and practice implications are discussed.

This chapter analyses the reasons behind changes in the intensity with which inventions and other changes in production took place in early modern Iberian polities. Rather than quantifying the impact of science on the economy and determine the direction of causality – two processes that were interconnected – this chapter studies the developments in science, knowledge and technology in relation to what is known about the economic performance of the Iberian economy. It analyses first the improvements in the agrarian sector, before showing some technological advances in the non-agrarian part of the economy. The chapter describes especially the innovations in specific areas of manufacturing like shipbuilding, textiles (woollens, silk and cotton) and mining. The last section discusses the role played by the institutional framework, and it explains how the Iberian monarchies promoted technology and knowledge in different ways.