In ‘The Place of Concepts in Socratic Inquiry’, Terence Irwin examines Socrates’ question ‘What is F?’, which is often taken to be a request for some sort of definition or account of what F is. When Socrates asks, ‘What is courage?’, ‘What is piety?’, ‘What is temperance?’, does his discovery that everyone, including himself, cannot answer such questions in a satisfactory manner imply that these answerers do not know what the words mean? If one cannot answer the ‘What is F?’ question, does it follow that one lacks the concept of F? Irwin argues that conceptual argument has an indispensable role in the arguments that lead to Socratic definitions, but it will not take us all the way to them. To understand Socratic definitions, Irwin compares them with Aristotelian real definitions, and with Epictetus’ views on the articulation of preconceptions.

This chapter explores the terms of letters patent for early colonies, particularly in their economic dimensions. It shows the textual basis for colonial autonomy in these patents as grants from the crown. In particular, patents granted long-term control of colonies to private actors, protected their control over colonial economic operations, and obliged minimal sharing of their economic output with the crown. The chapter presents the theory of contractual imperialism to explain why these contract terms solved an important incentive problem: To induce colonial agents to identify profitable resource endowments, despite great cost and risk, and to exploit them fully.

As the cases of the Jesús, Maria, y José and the San Juan Baptista made their way through the High Court of Admiralty, the arguments that would eventually be laid before the Court of Prize Appeal took shape. This chapter examines the arguments made in each case and how they affected Anglo-Spanish negotiations over neutrality. The chapter also focuses on the debates between British and Spanish ministers about the meaning and interpretation of the Anglo-Spanish Treaty of 1667 which governed Spanish neutral rights. It introduces two key people in Anglo-Spanish negotiations, Felix D’Abreu (Spanish representative in London) and Sir Benjamin Keene (British ambassador to Spain). Both men would be instrumental in shaping the debates on Spanish neutral rights and whether those rights could be protected through decisions handed down by the Court of Prize Appeal.

Linguistic pragmatics is one of the fastest growing fields in contemporary theoretical linguistics. It grew from the influential work of philosophers such as Grice, Austin, Stalnaker, Lewis, and others on context and communicative inferences. It engages directly with general rationality, theory of mind, and systems of intention. One of the major debates in pragmatics has been where to precisely draw the line between semantic phenomena and pragmatic phenomena. In this chapter, three classical and influential ideas on the nature of pragmatics, courtesy of Grice (1975), Stalnaker (1978), and Lewis (1979), are discussed. This discussion leads to three further general philosophical frameworks for separating semantic from pragmatic processes and analyses that have roots in the aforementioned triumvirate: (P1) the indexical conception, (P2) the cognitivist conception, and (P3) social-inferential conception. Each option offers a different demarcation. Finally, three linguistic theories of pragmatics are selected as candidate representations of the contemporary state of the art: (L1) optimality-theoretic pragmatics, (L2) game-theoretic pragmatics, and (L3) Bayesian pragmatics. It’s shown that each of these prominent frameworks exploit the philosophical demarcations (P1–P3) presented to different degrees.

Chapter 6 is the second of three chapters concerned with the institutional development of the gacaca courts, their formation and deformation. In conjunction, these chapters chart the transition from legalism to lawfare in post-genocide Rwanda, one of two explanatory pathways traced in the book. By carefully dissecting the temporally and spatially embedded mechanisms and processes by which elites of the Rwandan Patriotic Front maneuvered to create modified arrangements of things past, these chapters excavate the microfoundations of the authoritarian rule of law in Rwanda. This chapter foregrounds the legislative foundations of the gacaca project. Along with the next chapter, it gives a detailed account of the economy and ingenuity with which Rwanda’s new rulers devised and waged the strategy of lawfare. What it also makes clear, however, is that the deformation of Rwandas gacaca courts – their violent legalization – was not an inevitable outcome.

Regardless of the surgical approach, once having entered the mediastinum, the surgeon will be confronted by the heart enclosed in its pericardial sac. In the strict anatomical sense, this sac has two layers, one fibrous and the other serous. From a practical point of view, the pericardium is essentially the tough fibrous layer, since the serous component forms the lining of the fibrous sac, and is reflected back onto the surface of the heart as the epicardium. It is the fibrous sac, therefore, which encloses the mass of the heart. By virtue of its own attachments to the diaphragm, it helps support the heart within the mediastinum. Free-standing around the atrial chambers and the ventricles, the sac becomes adherent to the adventitial coverings of the great arteries and veins at their entrances to and exits from it, these attachments closing the pericardial cavity.1

The disposition of the conduction system in the normal heart has already been emphasized (see Chapter 2). In that earlier chapter, we pointed to the importance, during surgical procedures, of avoiding the cardiac nodes and ventricular bundle branches, and scrupulously protecting the vascular supply to these structures. In this chapter, we will consider the anatomy of these tissues relative to the treatment of intractable problems of cardiac rhythm, specifically the normal and abnormal atrioventricular conduction axis. The abnormal dispositions of the conduction tissues to be found in congenitally malformed hearts, features of obvious significance to the congenital cardiac surgeon, will be discussed in the sections devoted to those lesions in the chapters that follow. In this chapter, nonetheless, we will also discuss surgical procedures performed to treat arrhythmias that develop in the setting of the Fontan circulation.

This collection of essays on the work of Sir Karl Popper is based on the Royal Institute of Philosophy’s annual lecture series given in London from October 1994 to March 1995. Popper himself died in August 1994, shortly before the start of the lectures. His death was the cause of sadness to all of those involved in the series. Some, indeed, had been close friends of Popper over many years, and others colleagues and acquaintances, some close, some more distant. Even those unacquainted with Popper personally spoke in their lectures of the profound intellectual stimulation they had received from the study of his works.

Human activities, principally through emissions of greenhouse gases, have unequivocally caused global warming, with global surface temperature reaching 1.1⁰C above 1850–1900 in 2011–2020.’ These words are from the Summary for Policy Makers of the Synthesis Report of the IPCC’s 6th Assessment Report. It is the aim of this book to help you understand exactly how, and why, the collective body of scientists has come to these, and many other, conclusions. Addressing this aim requires that you understand two facets of the nature of our planet. Firstly, you need to understand how our planet ’behaves’ under what we might choose to call ’normal conditions’. Secondly, you need to understand how human activity has moved us away from that normal. The following chapters will take you through both of these in the necessary detail. In this chapter we present a quick overview, as well as introducing you to the IPCC.

We know that the Earth’s climate has changed in the past, including times when humans had yet to put in an appearance. These changes must, therefore, have been the result of ’natural processes’. So how do we know that current changes are not similarly natural? The challenge this poses for science is to understand the processes that were at work in the past, and compare them with the climate drivers, both natural and anthropogenic, at work today. There are two reasons to try to unravel the climatic history of our planet. The first might be described as its intrinsic interest. The more important reason is to see what lessons we can learn that might help us think about potential future climate change, and especially the much slower response of sea level to changes in temperature. This is the reason that it is now an important component of the IPCC process.

The inflow of solar radiant energy into the Earth System is relatively straightforward. The outward flow of terrestrial/long-wave radiation is a different kettle of fish. The majority of the energy radiated by the surface is absorbed by gases in the atmosphere, again mostly in the troposphere. Much of this is then radiated back to the surface, warming it. This, of course, is the greenhouse effect. So now we must turn our attention to the central questions that we have so far glossed over. Why is it that some gases are radiatively active – i.e. greenhouse gases – while others are not? Exactly how do these gases absorb, and re-emit, long-wave radiation? This latter question is central to the whole field of global warming – also known as the enhanced greenhouse effect – as it is the key to being able to quantify the effects of any increases in these gases.

This chapter examines investment-related aspects of the energy–environment nexus. State actions against fossil fuel investments often have an environmental cause, raising the issue of policy space under the investment regime. The doctrine of ‘police powers’ provides grounds for qualifying some pro-environmental interventions as non-compensable non-expropriatory measures. In addition to seeking policy flexibilities, many States wish energy investors to voluntarily bear social responsibility on the environmental front. As a result, a number of IIAs provide for responsible business conduct, bringing some changes to the ‘investor vs. State’ asymmetry in the investment system. A surge in renewable energy ISDS cases in the last ten years is another noticeable trend. High upfront costs of renewable energy projects recoupable in a long run necessitate FIT or other long-term benefits to investors. But when the government suddenly cancels or cuts promised incentives, this frustrates investors’ legitimate expectations under IIAs but may also be welcomed under trade law as a way of getting rid of distortive subsidies. Thus, some discrepancy or tension between the trade and investment regimes can arise.

The Maẓhar al-ʿajāʾib reveals a remarkable world of female religiosity that went beyond mere “spirituality” and shows that Aghā-yi Buzurg exerted communal leadership, competed for spiritual superiority, negotiated with the Shibanid royal court, handled the community’s finances, and dealt with her enemies. In addition to her direct interaction with the Shibanid court and the Bukharan and Khurasani public and religious authorities, Aghā-yi Buzurg’s wide network of male and female allies active in various regions of Mawarannahr tells us that her community operated not on the margins of society but rather in the middle of major, ongoing social and religious events in early sixteenth-century Central Asia.