Experiments were conducted to assess the impact of crown architecture on light availability beneath the trees, flowering, fruiting, yield and quality of jamun (Syzygium cumini [L.] Skeels). Trees were maintained as control, palmette and open centre crown. Impact was evaluated for three consecutive years, i.e. 2017–2019. Diffuse light beneath the trees ranged from 69.7 ± 2.22 to 45.9 ± 1.45%, whereas direct light varied from 30.4 ± 0.97 to 54.1 ± 1.78%. At flowering and fruit development stage (June), photosynthesis rate (A) in control trees was 12.5 ± 0.43 μmol CO2/m2/s; however, at fruit maturity and dormancy (August), it was only 9.5 ± 0.35 μmol CO2/m2/s. Similarly, in palmette and open centre trees, photosynthesis rate at flowering and fruit development stage was 13.5 ± 0.46 and 15.7 ± 0.54 μmol CO2/m2/s, respectively; whereas at fruit maturity and dormancy, photosynthesis rate dropped to 10.5 ± 0.39 and 11.7 ± 0.43 μmol CO2/m2/s, respectively. Substantial variation in stomatal conductance (gs), vapour pressure deficit (VPD) and transpiration rate (E) was also found. Days to start flowering ranged from 92 ± 0.33 to 98 ± 0.33. Similarly, days to end flowering varied from 99 ± 0.07 to 107 ± 0.36, days to fruit set 132 ± 0.33 to 139 ± 0.33 and days to fruit maturity 176 ± 0.48 to 184 ± 0.63. Significant variation in fruit length, fruit width and fruit weight was also found. Total soluble solids in fruit pulp varied from 9.0 ± 0.15 to 12.2 ± 0.149°Brix and fruit yield 62.3 ± 1.5 to 86.7 ± 1.33 kg per tree. Noteworthy variation in fruit quality traits was also recorded. This study illustrates that crown architecture has considerable impact on gas exchange parameters, flowering, fruiting, yield and quality of jamun.

Field studies were conducted in 2019 and 2020 to compare the effects of shade cloth light interception and Palmer amaranth (Amaranthus palmeri S. Watson) competition on ‘Covington’ sweetpotato [Ipomoea batatas (L.) Lam.]. Treatments consisted of a seven by two factorial arrangement, in which the first factor included shade cloth with an average measured light interception of 41%, 59%, 76%, and 94% and A. palmeri thinned to 0.6 or 3.1 plants m−2 or a nontreated weed-free check; and the second factor included shade cloth or A. palmeri removal timing at 6 or 10 wk after planting (WAP). Amaranthus palmeri light interception peaked around 710 to 840 growing degree days (base 10 C) (6 to 7 WAP) with a maximum light interception of 67% and 84% for the 0.6 and 3.1 plants m−2 densities, respectively. Increasing shade cloth light interception by 1% linearly increased yield loss by 1% for No. 1, jumbo, and total yield. Yield loss increased by 36%, 23%, and 35% as shade cloth removal was delayed from 6 to 10 WAP for No. 1, jumbo, and total yield, respectively. F-tests comparing reduced versus full models of yield loss provided no evidence that the presence of yield loss from A. palmeri light interception caused yield loss different than that explained by the shade cloth at similar light-interception levels. Results indicate that shade cloth structures could be used to simulate Covington sweetpotato yield loss from A. palmeri competition, and light interception could be used as a predictor for expected yield loss from A. palmeri competition.

Knowledge of crop–weed interference effects on weed biology along with yield penalties can be used for the development of integrated weed management (IWM) tactics. Nevertheless, little is known about the beneficial effects of soybean [Glycine max (L.) Merr.] density, an important aspect of IWM, on late Palmer amaranth (Amaranthus palmeri S. Watson) establishment time. Two field experiments were conducted in 2014 and 2015 to investigate how various soybean densities and A. palmeri establishment timings in weeks after crop emergence (WAE) affect height, biomass, and seed production of the weed but also crop yield in drill-seeded soybean. Soybean density had a significant impact on dry weight and seed production of A. palmeri that established within the first 2 wk of crop emergence, but not for establishment timings of the weed 4 wk and later in relation to crop emergence. Differential performance of A. palmeri gender was observed, regarding greater biomass production of female than male plants under crop presence, and merits further investigation. Grain yield reductions were recorded at earlier A. palmeri establishment timings (i.e., 0 and 1 WAE) compared with 8 WAE establishment timing in 2014 and 2015. High soybean densities resulted in greater soybean yields compared with low soybean density, but no grain yield benefits were observed between medium and high soybean densities. Crop budget analysis revealed the benefits of moderate seeding rate (i.e., 250, 000 seeds ha−1) increases in comparison to lower (i.e., 125,000 seeds ha−1) or high (i.e., 400,000 seeds ha−1) on crop revenue, net income returns, and breakeven price. Earlier A. palmeri establishment timings (i.e., 0, 1, and 2 WAE) resulted in lower crop revenue and net income returns compared with later establishment timings of the weed.

Light competition increases and plants’ growth pattern change to optimize light utilization when the leaf area index increases. It has been previously shown that using 95% canopy light interception (LI) as a grazing frequency criterion resulted in a greater proportion of leaves and a lower proportion of stem. The objective of the study was to characterize the forage production, morphological composition and nutritive value of Panicum maximum cv Mombaça. The experiment was carried out during summer, autumn–winter and spring. Treatments corresponded to combinations of two pre-grazing conditions (95% and maximum LI at pre-grazing; LI95% and LIMax, respectively) and two post-grazing heights (PGHs; 30 and 50 cm). The statistical design was a randomized complete block, with a 2 × 2 factorial arrangement. Swards managed with LI95% had greater proportions of leaves and lower proportions of stems compared to LIMax. Leaf proportion was lower during autumn–winter compared to summer and spring. The LI95% had greater crude protein (CP) and digestibility (IVOMD), and lower acid detergent fibre (ADF) concentrations than LIMax. The 50 cm PGH pastures had greater CP content and IVOMD, and lower ADF content than 30 cm PGH pastures. Lower IVOMD was observed during autumn–winter than summer and spring. The variability observed on morphological characteristics was primarily associated with seasonality, whilst the nutritive value was primarily affected by grazing management. The pre-grazing target of LI95% combined with 50 cm PGH was the combination that resulted in an increased proportion of leaves, decreased stems in basal stratum and the greatest nutritive value of the produced forage.

Information about weed biology and weed population dynamics is critical for the development of efficient weed management programs. A field experiment was conducted in Fayetteville, AR, during 2014 and 2015 to examine the effects of Palmer amaranth (Amaranthus palmeri S. Watson) establishment time in relation to soybean [Glycine max (L.) Merr.] emergence and the effects of A. palmeri distance from the soybean row on the weed’s height, biomass, seed production, and flowering time and on soybean yield. The establishment time factor, in weeks after crop emergence (WAE), was composed of six treatment levels (0, 1, 2, 4, 6, and 8 WAE), whereas the distance from the crop consisted of three treatment levels (0, 24, and 48 cm). Differences in A. palmeri biomass and seed production averaged across distance from the crop were found at 0 and 1 WAE in both years. Establishment time had a significant effect on A. palmeri seed production through greater biomass production and height increases at earlier dates. Amaranthus palmeri that was established with the crop (0 WAE) overtopped soybean at about 7 and 10 WAE in 2014 and 2015, respectively. Distance from the crop affected A. palmeri height, biomass, and seed production. The greater the distance from the crop, the higher A. palmeri height, biomass, and seed production at 0 and 1 WAE compared with other dates (i.e., 2, 4, 6, and 8 WAE). Amaranthus palmeri establishment time had a significant impact on soybean yield, but distance from the crop did not. The earlier A. palmeri interfered with soybean (0 and 1 WAE), the greater the crop yield reduction; after that period no significant yield reductions were recorded compared with the rest of the weed establishment times. Knowledge of A. palmeri response, especially at early stages of its life cycle, is important for designing efficient weed management strategies and cropping systems that can enhance crop competitiveness. Control of A. palmeri within the first week after crop emergence or reduced distance between crop and weed are important factors for an effective implementation of weed management measures against A. palmeri and reduced soybean yield losses due to weed interference.

Weed control remains a major challenge for economically viable grain sorghum production in the southeastern United States due to crop sensitivity to weed competition during early growth stages. Field experiments were conducted in 2012 and 2013 to determine the effects of grain sorghum row spacing, population density, and herbicide programs on Palmer amaranth control, crop growth, and grain yield. Treatments included row spacings of 19, 38, and 76 cm; grain sorghum population densities of 99,000, 198,000, 297,000, and 396,000 plants ha−1; and three herbicide programs: (1) a nontreated control, (2) S-metolachlor at 1,410 g ai ha−1 plus atrazine at 1,820 g ha−1 PRE, and (3) S-metolachlor at 1,070 g ha−1 plus atrazine at 1,380 g ha−1 PRE followed by 2,4 D at 330 g ha−1 POST. Palmer amaranth control benefited from the addition of a POST herbicide and from crop density ≥297,000 plants ha−1. Under weedy conditions, Palmer amaranth density was not affected by narrower row spacing or increased crop density, whereas its dry biomass was reduced by 33% with 19 and 38 compared to 76 cm rows, and by 43% with ≥297,000 vs 99,000 plants ha−1. Row spacing had no effect on light interception by the crop canopy. However, crop density influenced canopy closure with maximum light interception occurring one and a half weeks earlier for density ≥297,000 plants ha−1. Yield increased by 18% for 19 vs 38 and 76 cm rows, whereas grain crop density had no effect. Overall, these results indicate that the combination of row spacing≤30 cm and crop density ≥297,000 plants ha−1 provided at least 97% Palmer amaranth control in the absence of POST application and reduced its biomass by 32% in nontreated plots compared to 76 cm row spacing and crop density≤198,000 plants ha−1.

Redroot pigweed is a troublesome weed in the sorghum-growing regions of North America. In 1994 and 1995, field studies were conducted at two locations near Manhattan, KS, to determine the influence of redroot pigweed density and environmental conditions on physiological determinants of redroot pigweed growth: duration of plant growth, light interception, radiation-use efficiency, and dry matter partitioning. In addition, specific leaf area was determined. Redroot pigweed was seeded at monoculture densities of 2, 4, and 12 plants m−1 of row each year at each location. Duration of redroot pigweed growth was not influenced by plant density. Light interception was defined as a simple exponential function of leaf area index. Specific leaf area did not change over the season and averaged 135 cm2 g−1. Partitioning of redroot pigweed dry matter was not influenced by plant density or environmental conditions but did not change within vegetative and reproductive stages. Radiation-use efficiency was not influenced by redroot pigweed density; the most reliable estimate was 1.74 g dry matter MJ−1 of intercepted photosynthetically active radiation. Physiological determinants described were not affected by redroot pigweed density or environmental conditions and therefore provide a starting point for the development of a redroot pigweed growth module. The module could be coupled with available crop growth models (e.g., the sorghum growth model SORKAM) to simulate redroot pigweed–sorghum competition.

Soybean yield loss from weed interference depends upon weed density and competitiveness of crop and weed species in response to environment. Soil water availability and nitrogen fertility were evaluated for their effect on competitiveness of individual species in field experiments. Early-season temperatures in 1995, which were cool compared to 1994, slowed hemp sesbania growth without affecting soybean growth. This resulted in negligible competition with soybean by hemp sesbania at densities of 3 or 6 plants m−2. In 1994, hemp sesbania grew above the soybean canopy, decreasing soybean light interception 29 to 68%, and reducing soybean yield 30 to 48%. Fertilizer nitrogen increased soybean competitiveness, as indicated by biomass production, only in irrigated plots with hemp sesbania at 3 m−2, but did not affect soybean yield. Apparently, competition for light is a primary cause of soybean yield loss from hemp sesbania infestations. In growth chamber studies, simulating temperatures from the field, hemp sesbania growth was stimulated more by warm temperatures than was soybean. Hemp sesbania and soybean dry weights increased 4.4- and 2.7-fold, respectively, at 30/20 C day/night temperatures compared to 25/15 C.

Competitive relationships between johnsongrass, smooth pigweed, and soybean were examined in 1986 and 1987, and the adequacy of an additive response model (ARM) and product response model (PRM) in predicting yield reductions due to multispecies weed populations was assessed. A severe drought reduced soybean yields statewide in 1986, whereas ideal conditions for soybean production were experienced in 1987. Averaged over monospecific weed densities of 1, 2, 4, and 8 plants 4.6 m−1 of row, smooth pigweed intercepted 2.5 and 1.8 times more light than johnsongrass in 1986 and 1987, respectively. In multispecies populations having either 4 or 8 smooth pigweed plants 4.6 m−1 of row, light interception by johnsongrass was negligible. Averaged over monospecific weed densities, smooth pigweed produced 5160 and 1760 kg ha−1, while johnsongrass produced 1530 and 450 kg ha−1 dry weight in 1986 and 1987, respectively. In multispecies populations, smooth pigweed contributed more than 80% of the total weed biomass. As monospecific johnsongrass density increased, reductions in soybean seed yield were linear, whereas exponential response patterns adequately characterized reductions in soybean seed yield due to smooth pigweed interference. Based on calibrated monospecific responses, the ARM and PRM generally projected higher soybean seed yield reductions for multispecies weed populations than were observed. When crop production conditions were favorable and competitive effects of weeds were low, both models adequately predicted soybean seed yield reductions. When dry conditions unfavorable for crop production existed, the PRM best accommodated the interactive effects between johnsongrass, smooth pigweed, and soybean.

‘Ransom’, ‘Govan’, and ‘Bragg’ soybeans [Glycine max (L.) Merr.] were seeded in 30-, 61-, and 91-cm row spacings to achieve a uniform population of 323 000 plants/ha. In 1979 and 1980, shade development within the row was similar for all row spacings, but 15 cm from the row the inflection point occurred earlier when soybeans were seeded at the 30-cm row spacing. In 1979, shading 30 cm from the row was similar with the 61- and 91-cm row spacings, but in 1980 the 61-cm row spacing provided earlier shading. Shading within the row and 15 and 30 cm from the row was similar for all cultivars in 1979, but Govan and Bragg shaded row middles earlier than Ransom at the 91-cm row spacing. In 1980, shade development in the row was similar for all cultivars, but delayed shading was observed between the rows with Ransom. In 1979, maximum soybean seed yields were produced with 2, 2, and 0 weed-free weeks at the 30-, 61-, and 91-cm row spacings, respectively. In 1980, 2 weed-free weeks prevented soybean seed yield reductions at all row spacings. In 1979, Ransom, Bragg, and Govan required 4, 2, and 0 weed-free weeks, respectively, for maximum seed yields. In 1980, all cultivars achieved maximum seed yields with 2 weed-free weeks.

Field research was conducted in 2002 and 2003 to determine the effect of twin- and single-row spacing and POST glyphosate application timing on light interception, weed control, and grain yield of glyphosate-resistant corn and soybean. Row spacing did not affect light interception measured 10 to 11 wk after planting. Corn grain yield in 2002 was 1.0 Mg/ha higher in single rows compared with twin rows when averaged over glyphosate timing, but was unaffected by row spacing in 2003. Soybean grain yield was similar in 19- and 38-cm single rows, and single-row grain yield was 0.2 to 0.4 Mg/ha higher than the twin-row spacing. Corn grain yields were similar to the weed-free control when glyphosate was applied to weeds 10 to 15 cm tall in 2002 and 10 cm tall in 2003. Soybean yield was maximized by application of glyphosate to weeds 15 to 30 cm tall in 2002 and 60 cm tall in 2003.

Field studies were conducted in 2002 and 2003 to determine whether canopy formation influences pitted morningglory, common cocklebur, and sicklepod emergence in surface-tilled soybean. Each weed species was broadcast seeded before planting soybean in 19- and 97-cm-wide rows. Weed emergence beneath soybean was monitored after soybean emergence and compared with weed emergence in the absence of soybean (bareground treatment). Magnitude of daily diurnal soil temperature fluctuations diminished after soybean canopy formation, and light interception by soybean was positively related to the reduction in soil temperature. Canopy formation (50% light interception) occurred 16 to 17 d later in wide compared with narrow rows in both years. The red/far-red ratio of light available to seed on or near the soil surface was reduced from as much as 1.2 in full sunlight to less than 0.1 in the presence of a dense soybean canopy. Pitted morningglory emergence was not influenced by soybean canopy formation, whereas common cocklebur and sicklepod emergence were reduced as much as 33 and 68%, respectively. Although common cocklebur and sicklepod emergence diminished after soybean canopy formation, a small portion of the seedbank of both species emerged beneath the canopy. This research indicates that in a tilled system, emergence of some weed species is diminished by presence of an overlying canopy, but emergence does not completely cease with canopy formation. Late-season emergence of sicklepod and common cocklebur beneath a soybean canopy may contribute to replenishment of the soil seedbank, especially if these late-emerging cohorts are capable of surviving until the light environment is favorable for seed production.

Field experiments were conducted from 1997 through 1999 to evaluate interspecific interference between pitted morningglory at 0, 10, 16, and 62 plants m−2 and drill-seeded, glyphosate-resistant soybean as influenced by soybean population and a single glyphosate application of 1.12 kg ai ha−1. Photosynthetic rate of soybean was not influenced by pitted morningglory density or glyphosate use 2 wk after treatment (WAT). Photosynthetic rate of soybean 12 WAT was reduced by 21 and 91% with 62 treated and untreated pitted morningglory plants m−2, respectively, whereas 10 treated and untreated pitted morningglory plants m−2 had no effect on the soybean photosynthetic rate. Pitted morningglory photosynthetic rate 2 and 12 WAT was reduced by 64 and 80%, respectively, when treated with glyphosate. The reduction in the photosynthetic rate of glyphosate-treated pitted morningglory was partially attributed to shading by soybean, whereas untreated plants were fully exposed to sunlight. Glyphosate-treated pitted morningglory at 10 and 16 plants m−2 did not reduce the rate of soybean leaf area index (LAI) accumulation; however, when the density was increased to 62 pitted morningglory plants m−2, soybean LAI decreased from 1.19 to 0.88 for each accumulated 100 growing degree days. Pitted morningglory produced a maximum of 24 million seeds ha−1 in the absence of glyphosate with 217,000 soybean plants ha−1. Pitted morningglory seed production declined with increasing soybean seeding rate in the absence of glyphosate, with a 41% reduction occurring when soybean population increased from 217,000 to 521,000 plants ha−1. Seed production of treated pitted morningglory ranged from 380,000 to 700,000 seeds ha−1. Soybean seed yield was not influenced by pitted morningglory density when treated with glyphosate. Untreated pitted morningglory at 10, 16, and 62 plants m−2 reduced soybean seed yield by 47, 62, and 81%, respectively. Competitiveness of untreated soybean increased with soybean seeding rate, resulting in 22% less yield loss with 521,000 than with 217,000 plants ha−1. Soybean seed yield was not reduced by 10 and 16 glyphosate-treated pitted morningglory plants m−2, but a 9% loss in yield occurred with 62 pitted morningglory plants m−2. Averaged over all pitted morningglory densities, glyphosate-treated pitted morningglory failed to reduce soybean seed yield at each of the three soybean densities. Following a single application of glyphosate, no apparent benefit was noted from increasing the soybean population above 217,000 plants ha−1.

Crop rows oriented at a right angle to sunlight direction (i.e., east–west within the winter cropping system in Western Australia) may suppress weed growth through greater shading of weeds in the interrow spaces. This was investigated in the districts of Merredin and Beverley, Western Australian (latitudes of 31° and 32°S) from 2002 to 2005 (four trials). Winter grain crops (wheat, barley, canola, lupines, and field peas) were sown in an east–west or north–south orientation. Within wheat and barley crops oriented east–west, weed biomass (averaged throughout all trials) was reduced by 51 and 37%, and grain yield increased by 24 and 26% (compared with crops oriented north–south). This reduction in weed biomass and increase in crop yield likely resulted from the increased light (photosynthetically active radiation) interception by crops oriented east–west (i.e., light interception by the crop canopy as opposed to the weed canopy was 28 and 18% greater in wheat and barley crops oriented east–west, compared with north–south crops). There was no consistent effect of crop row orientation in the canola, field pea, and lupine crops. It appears that manipulation of crop row orientation in wheat and barley is a useful weed-control technique that has few negative effects on the farming system (i.e., does not cost anything to implement and is more environmentally friendly than chemical weed control).

Plant canopy radiation-use efficiency (RUE), defined as unit of dry biomass produced per unit of absorbed photosynthetically active radiation (APAR), has been widely studied both in experimental and theoretical contexts because the use of this relationship greatly simplifies estimating biomass production in plant growth models. Previous studies have indicated that RUE may be sensitive to changes in the fractions of diffuse and direct radiation; RUE has been shown experimentally to increase under conditions of increased diffuse light caused either by atmospheric conditions or by shading from other plants in intercrops. Therefore, we hypothesized that weed species RUE would be greater for weeds grown in mixed weed–crop communities than for weeds grown in more uniform and less dense monotypic communities. To address this question, field experiments were conducted during 2001 and 2002 to determine the vegetative-stage RUE of giant ragweed, velvetleaf, woolly cupgrass, and wild-proso millet grown in monotypic communities or in corn. ANOVA indicated that the effect of community type on RUE was significant (P < 0.0001) and that the interaction between species and year effects was significant (P = 0.0152). Paired comparisons showed that giant ragweed RUE differed from velvetleaf RUE in 2001 (P = 0.0381) and that giant ragweed RUE differed between years (P = 0.0455). Pooled across species types and years, RUE was approximately 50% greater for weeds grown in weed–corn communities than for weeds grown in monotypic communities. These results indicate that more complex canopy architecture in mixed-species communities (i.e., greater total leaf area index [LAI] and heterogeneity of height among individuals) was associated with greater weed RUE. Including weed RUE response to the competitive environment may be one approach to improving the predictive accuracy of process-based growth models for weed biomass accumulation in mixed-species communities.

Weeds can infest management-intensive grazed pastures and impact forage quantity, forage quality, and animal health. Common burdock, plumeless thistle, and Canada thistle are three common pasture weeds in the midwestern United States that are managed to avoid these impacts. Experiments were established at two sites to determine if increasing grazing heights from fall through summer would reduce emergence and survival of burdock, plumeless thistle, and Canada thistle seedlings. Five simulated grazing heights (5, 10, 15, and 20 cm and a not-clipped treatment) were implemented in October 2008 and repeated in May through August. Density of all species was reduced from May to September, with reductions ranging from 65 to 78%, regardless of treatment. Treatments that left at least 15 cm of residual grass had reduced densities of burdock and Canada thistle compared to the 10-cm treatment. Regression analysis demonstrated that reduction in burdock and summed planted weed density was related to increased intercepted photosynthetically active radiation from forage in April. However, total biomass yield was reduced up to 60% when grazing heights were increased from 5 to 20 cm, although differences were only observed at the fall and early spring grazing events. Relative forage quality (RFQ) was similar across treatments, except at the third grazing event for which the 15 and 20-cm treatments had reduced RFQ compared with other treatments. Results suggest that increasing grazing heights can reduce emergence and survival of burdock and Canada thistle but can also result in a reduction in forage quantity in the fall and early spring.

Field studies were conducted in 2007 and 2008 at Clinton and Faison, NC, to evaluate the influence of Palmer amaranth density on ‘Beauregard’ and ‘Covington’ sweetpotato yield and quality and to quantify the influence of Palmer amaranth on light interception. Palmer amaranth was established at 0, 0.5, 1.1, 1.6, 3.3, and 6.5 plants m−1 within the sweetpotato row and densities were maintained season-long. Jumbo, number (no.) 1, and marketable sweetpotato yield losses were fit to a rectangular hyperbola model, and predicted yield loss ranged from 56 to 94%, 30 to 85%, and 36 to 81%, respectively for Palmer amaranth densities of 0.5 to 6.5 plants m−1. Percentage of jumbo, no. 1, and marketable sweetpotato yield loss displayed a positive linear relationship with Palmer amaranth light interception as early as 6 to 7 wk after planting (R2 = 0.99, 0.86, and 0.93, respectively). Predicted Palmer amaranth light interception 6 to 7, 10, and 13 to 14 wk after planting ranged from 47 to 68%, 46 to 82%, and 42 to 71%, respectively for Palmer amaranth densities of 0.5 to 6.5 plants m−1. Palmer amaranth height increased from 177 to 197 cm at densities of 0.5 to 4.1 plants m−1 and decreased from 197 to 188 cm at densities of 4.1 to 6.5 plants m−1; plant width (69 to 145 cm) and shoot dry biomass plant−1 (0.2 to 1.1 kg) decreased linearly as density increased.

Glyphosate-resistant (Roundup Ready®) soybean is widely grown to provide broad-spectrum weed control following sequential applications of glyphosate. Studies were conducted during 1998 and 1999 at Keiser, AR, and in 1999 at Pine Tree, AR, to examine the effect of glyphosate-resistant soybean populations on the number of glyphosate applications needed to maintain 90% or greater control of all weed species and on the gross profit margin from weed management. Soybean was seeded in 19-cm rows at 12 rates ranging from 185,000 to 1,482,000 seeds/ha. Each seeding rate received a single application of 0.56 and 1.12 kg ai/ha glyphosate once weeds were 5 to 7 cm tall, followed by repeat applications when control of any species fell below 90%. Soybean yield and gross profit margin at Keiser were similar both years, and a quadratic curve best described the relationship between seed yield and seeding rate, with maximum predicted and observed yield at 988,000 seeds/ha. Soybean seeding rate affected light interception by soybean and the number of glyphosate applications needed to maintain 90% control of all species. By the later stages of vegetative development, soybean at Pine Tree achieved ≥95% light interception, maximizing yield at all seeding rates. Late-season light interception at Keiser ranged from 88 to 99%, causing soybean yield to vary by seeding rate. Three applications of 0.56 kg/ha glyphosate were needed at seeding rates of 185,000 and 247,000 seeds/ha, whereas higher seeding rates sometimes required only a single application for season-long weed control. Application and herbicide costs were offset by reduced seeding costs; thus, predicted gross profit margin from weed management was optimized at the lowest seeding rate of 185,000 seeds/ha.

Corn yield loss associated with common lambsquarters and giant foxtail in mixed-weed species communities was estimated from empirical equations based on early-season weed density, weed relative leaf area, or weed relative shoot volume in 1998 and 1999. The estimated maximum corn yield loss ranged up to 20% in 1998 but was 50% or more in 1999. Competition coefficients estimated from weed density (I values) or weed relative shoot volume (q V values) indicated that the weed species were equally competitive in 1998 but that common lambsquarters was more competitive than giant foxtail in 1999. In contrast, the relative leaf area–based competition coefficients (q L values) indicated that common lambsquarters and giant foxtail were equally competitive in both years. Weed species emerged at the same time as corn in 1998, whereas in 1999, common lambsquarters emerged 3 d earlier than corn and 1 d earlier than did giant foxtail. Earlier emergence of common lambsquarters was associated with greater cumulative intercepted photosynthetically active radiation (IPAR) per plant compared with that of giant foxtail. Competition coefficients estimated from weed relative leaf area were similar between years for common lambsquarters but differed for giant foxtail. Similarly, the relationship between cumulative estimated IPAR and early-season relative leaf area was stable between years for common lambsquarters but not for giant foxtail. Consequently, competition coefficients were more consistent for common lambsquarters than for giant foxtail in mixed communities. The results suggest that the competitive ability of common lambsquarters and giant foxtail may not differ greatly in corn, but variability in corn yield loss between years was not adequately explained by these empirical models.

Reducing seeding rates in 19- or 76-cm row soybean below the optimum rate may reduce soybean competitiveness with weeds, and indirectly increase production costs to the grower. Field studies in 2001 and 2002 evaluated the effect of soybean seeding rate and row spacing on the emergence, growth, and competitiveness of eastern black nightshade (EBN) in soybean. EBN emergence ceased within 45 d after planting (DAP), and was similar across soybean seeding rates and row spacing. EBN control by glyphosate was not affected by soybean population or row spacing. Soybean planted in 19-cm rows was more competitive with EBN, regardless of seeding rate. Increasing the soybean seeding rate in 76-cm rows from 185,000 seeds/ha to 432,000 seeds/ha reduced EBN dry weight threefold at East Lansing and nearly twofold at Clarksville in 2002. There was no increase in EBN density or dry weight in 19-cm row soybean planted at 308,000 seeds/ha compared with 556,000 seeds/ha, whereas a seeding rate of 432,000 seeds/ha in 76-cm row soybean did not suppress EBN dry weight or increase soybean yield in the presence of EBN compared with a seeding rate of 308,000 seeds/ha.