Field studies were conducted at five locations in North Carolina and Virginia during 1996 and 1997 to evaluate weed control, peanut (Arachis hypogaea) response, and peanut yield following diclosulam applied preplant incorporated (PPI) and in systems with commercial herbicide standards. All plots received a PPI treatment of ethalfluralin at 840 g ai/ha. Ethalfluralin plus diclosulam controlled entireleaf morningglory (Ipomoea hederacea var. integriuscula), ivyleaf morningglory (I. hederacea), pitted morningglory (I. lacunosa), common lambsquarters (Chenopodium album), eclipta (Eclipta prostrata), and prickly sida (Sida spinosa) as well as and frequently better than ethalfluralin PPI followed by (fb) acifluorfen plus bentazon postemergence (POST), paraquat plus bentazon early postemergence (EPOST) fb imazapic POST, or imazapic POST. Systems with ethalfluralin plus diclosulam PPI at 26 g ai/ha fb acifluorfen plus bentazon POST controlled a broader spectrum of weeds and yielded greater than systems of ethalfluralin PPI fb imazapic POST or ethalfluralin PPI fb acifluorfen plus bentazon POST. Peanut exhibited excellent tolerance to diclosulam PPI at 17, 26, or 35 g/ha.

Hypocotyl and root length reduction of soybean (Glycine max) seedlings when seeds were exposed to sulfentrazone during germination were used as indices to classify cultivar response to soil-applied sulfentrazone. Seeds of ‘Stonewall’ (sulfentrazone tolerant) and ‘Asgrow 6785’ (sulfentrazone sensitive) were imbibed and allowed to germinate in 0, 1, 5, 10, and 50 ppm aqueous sulfentrazone solutions for 4 d. Hypocotyl and root lengths were reduced in both cultivars, but the reductions were greater for Asgrow 6785 than for Stonewall. Subsequently, the relative sensitivity of 28 cultivars to sulfentrazone was independently determined by two variations of the hypocotyl reduction method (both conducted in the laboratory) and by traditional full-season field evaluation. Results from laboratory and field studies were in agreement for cultivars distinctly sensitive or tolerant to sulfentrazone. However, cultivars with intermediate tolerance in laboratory studies produced variable responses in the field.

Spring barley often is grown in rotation with winter wheat, and sometimes barley can overwinter in the subsequent winter wheat crop reducing grain yield and quality. Studies were established during 1996 and 1997 in winter wheat fields in southeastern Washington and near Moscow, ID, respectively, to evaluate control of ‘Steptoe’ volunteer barley with MON 37500, diclofop, and fenoxaprop/2,4-D/MCPA. Herbicides were applied to volunteer barley at two growth stages: two leaves to four tillers and more than four tillers with stems beginning to elongate. MON 37500 at 0.018, 0.026, and 0.035 kg ai/ha visibly controlled volunteer barley 83% or more at both application times. Diclofop at 1.12 kg ai/ha did not control volunteer barley, whereas fenoxaprop/2,4-D/MCPA at 0.66 kg ai/ha controlled volunteer barley 64 to 97% in 1996, but only 0 to 23% in 1997. In 1996 and 1997, volunteer barley density was reduced 80 to 99% in MON 37500-treated plots compared to the untreated control plots. Wheat grain grade was #1 for all MON 37500 treatments compared to grade #4 in 1996 and #3 in 1997 in the untreated plots. Grain price was reduced by dockage (barley kernels) for MON 37500-treated wheat $0 to $3.12/metric ton (MT), whereas price was reduced $23 to $26/MT for grain from untreated plots. In greenhouse studies, visible injury and height and biomass reduction varied among the 36 barley varieties treated with MON 37500.

Agrichemical interactions between propanil; the herbicides HOE 30374, pendimethalin, piperophos, quinclorac, and thiobencarb; and the insecticide carbaryl were evaluated under field conditions to find synergistic or additive interactions useful to control a barnyardgrass biotype resistant to propanil (R-BYG) without injuring rice. Propanil and each compound were evaluated at four rates for a total of 16 rate combinations for each additive. Averaged over all experiments, 2- to 3-leaf R-BYG control with propanil alone at 0.83, 1.65, 3.3, and 6.6 kg ai/ha was 33, 53, 62, and 81% at 7 d after treatment (DAT). Propanil-susceptible barnyardgrass (S-BYG) response to propanil alone at similar rates was 52, 73, 88, and 94% control. HOE 30374, carbaryl, piperophos, or pendimethalin in combination with propanil produced synergistic effects on R-BYG. For each compound tested, at least one rate combination with propanil controlled R-BYG > 80% with minimal rice injury (< 20%) at 7 DAT. Use of these combinations of compounds could provide more effective control of this resistant biotype and help prevent its spread.

The effect of soil residues of flumetsulam plus clopyralid on several vegetable crops grown in rotation with field corn was investigated over 2 yr. The effect of soil residues of flumetsulam plus clopyralid on sweet corn cultivars of varying sensitivity to acetolactate synthase (ALS)-inhibiting herbicide was also investigated. Flumetsulam plus clopyralid was applied preemergence (PRE) to field corn at 0, 50 + 135, and 100 + 270 g ai/ha, respectively, in 1993 and 1994. Cucumber, tomato, cabbage, potato, pepper, pea, and sweet corn were planted each spring, both 1 and 2 yr following the herbicide application. Cabbage was very sensitive and showed visible injury symptoms and yield reductions both years following flumetsulam plus clopyralid application. Pepper showed a yield reduction only in 1995. All other crops showed no injury or yield reductions. Flumetsulam plus clopyralid was applied PRE and postemergence (POST) to six sweet corn cultivars in 1995. These six sweet corn cultivars were replanted into the same site 1 yr later. Flumetsulam plus clopyralid severely injured three of six sweet corn cultivars in 1995, the year of application. Soil residues 1 yr later, however, did not injure or reduce yield of any sweet corn cultivars, including cultivars sensitive to ALS-inhibiting herbicides.

The effectiveness of preharvest applications of glyphosate on yellow toadflax was evaluated at five sites in Alberta from 1992 to 1994. At each site, glyphosate at 0.9 to 1.8 kg ae/ha was applied with or without nonionic surfactant and/or ammonium sulfate. Glyphosate at 2.7 kg/ha and glufosinate at 0.6 kg ai/ha were applied without additional adjuvants. The treatments were applied 7 to 10 d before crop harvest, when the majority of the yellow toadflax was in a flowering stage. Eleven to 12 mo after glyphosate application, yellow toadflax density was reduced by more than 80%. In most instances, there was no advantage in increasing the glyphosate rate above 0.9 kg/ha. The addition of nonionic surfactant and/or ammonium sulfate did not enhance glyphosate activity. Glufosinate did not control yellow toadflax in the year following treatment. Barley, canola, and flax yields in the year following applications were significantly higher in all preharvest glyphosate-treated plots than in untreated plots.

The effect of nonionic surfactant, crop oil concentrate, organosilicone surfactant, methylated seed oil, and a blend of organosilicone surfactant and methylated seed oil on absorption of 14C-clethodim was evaluated in barnyardgrass (Echinochloa crus-galli). Absorption of 14C-label was greatest during the first 40 min after application when 14C-clethodim was applied with methylated seed oil or a blend of methylated seed oil and organosilicone surfactant. These adjuvants increased the rate of absorption more than crop oil concentrate, organosilicone surfactant, or nonionic surfactant. Crop oil concentrate was more effective than organosilicone or nonionic surfactant in increasing absorption, with nonionic surfactant being more effective than organosilicone surfactant. These results generally agreed with the order of increasing efficacy of clethodim on barnyardgrass as affected by adjuvants in field experiments. Another study was conducted to determine the effect of bromoxynil on absorption and translocation of 14C-clethodim in yellow foxtail (Setaria glauca). Bromoxynil reduced absorption of 14C–clethodim 4, 8, and 24 h after application and also reduced the amount of 14C-label translocated from the treated leaf. These data suggest that antagonism of clethodim control of yellow foxtail by bromoxynil observed in previous research can be attributed partially to decreased absorption and translocation of clethodim.

Experiments were conducted using oat in the greenhouse to determine phytotoxicity and spray deposit characteristics of sethoxydim on oat as influenced by adjuvants, ultraviolet (UV) light, and temperature at and shortly after application. Petroleum oil of low viscosity was equal or more effective with sethoxydim when applied at 10 than at 25 C, but high-viscosity petroleum oil was more effective at 25 than at 10 C. UV light reduced sethoxydim efficacy more for high- than low-viscosity petroleum oil adjuvant at 25 C, but not at 10 C. Commercial vegetable oil adjuvant was less effective with sethoxydim at 10 than at 25 C, and UV light reduced efficacy at both temperatures. Commercial methylated vegetable oil was the most effective adjuvant and efficacy was only slightly reduced by UV light at 25 C. A secondary alcohol surfactant that is considered hydrophilic enhanced sethoxydim efficacy even when exposed to UV light. Adjuvants that gave discernible uniform spray deposits with close contact to the epicuticular surface, including over anticlinal walls, resulted in the most effective treatments. The results indicated that temperature at application is important to adjuvant efficacy, partly because of the effect on spray deposit characteristics.

Adjuvants influence weed control and crop tolerance provided by postemergence (POST) herbicides. Adjuvant effects on weed control and corn and soybean tolerance with CGA-248757 and flumiclorac applied alone and soybean tolerance with CGA-248757 and flumiclorac applied in combination with imazethapyr or CGA-277476 were evaluated. Velvetleaf control in the greenhouse and common lambsquarters, redroot pigweed, and common ragweed control in the greenhouse and field with CGA-248757 and flumiclorac were increased by the addition of an adjuvant. However, corn and soybean tolerance to these herbicides was not affected by adding an adjuvant. Laboratory studies suggest enhanced weed control from the addition of an adjuvant resulted from an increase in CGA-248757 and flumiclorac foliar absorption. In greenhouse studies, velvetleaf, common lambsquarters, and redroot pigweed control with CGA-248757 plus imazethapyr; velvetleaf control with flumiclorac plus imazethapyr; redroot pigweed and common ragweed control with CGA-248757 plus CGA-277476; and velvetleaf, redroot pigweed, and common ragweed control with flumiclorac plus CGA-277476 increased by adding an organosilicone adjuvant when compared with adding a nonionic surfactant (NIS). However, in field evaluations of CGA-248757 or flumiclorac plus imazethapyr, the addition of NIS or an organosilicone adjuvant resulted in equivalent soybean injury, common lambsquarters and redroot pigweed control, and soybean yield. Yet in tank mixtures of CGA-248757 or flumiclorac plus CGA-277476, the addition of an organosilicone adjuvant increased redroot pigweed control and soybean yield compared to adding NIS.

Studies were conducted at Clayton, Goldsboro, and Rocky Mount, NC, to evaluate weed and cotton response to herbicide programs in glyphosate-resistant cotton. Just prior to cotton harvest, programs containing norflurazon, trifluralin, fluometuron, glyphosate, MSMA, cyanazine, and/or pyrithiobac in various combinations controlled common lambsquarters, common ragweed, goosegrass, ivyleaf morningglory, and smooth pigweed at least 94%. Glyphosate-resistant cotton injury was no more than 5%. Yields for glyphosate programs differed only at Clayton, where glyphosate programs containing residual herbicides yielded more than glyphosate alone. Depending on location, programs utilizing glyphosate as needed required a minimum of two and a maximum of four applications to prevent yield loss when minimal soil-applied herbicides were used. Other as-needed programs required one-three glyphosate applications, depending on location. For comparison based on application, herbicide, and adjuvant costs, the standard program of trifluralin preplant incorporated (PPI), pyrithiobac postemergence (POST), and fluometuron plus MSMA postemergence-directed (PD) was $119/ha compared with trifluralin PPI followed by (fb) two applications of glyphosate ($54/ha) or four applications of glyphosate ($94/ha).

A greenhouse experiment was conducted from 1995 to 1996 to determine the inheritance of ALS-cross-resistant common cocklebur. Two known biotypes (ALS-susceptible and ALS-resistant) were used in the experiment. Susceptible biotypes were crossed with pollen from resistant biotypes. F1 plants were self-pollinated. F2 plants were sprayed postemergence (POST) with a tank mixture of imazaquin at 280 g ai/ha and chlorimuron at 18 g ai/ha. Three distinct responses were observed: (1) no apparent effect (resistant), (2) yellowing of leaves with live terminals (intermediate), and (3) yellow leaves with dead terminals (typical symptoms of an ALS-susceptible common cocklebur). Chi-square tests indicated that an incomplete dominance model did not fit the data. Responses one and two were, therefore, combined and chi-square tests indicated a complete dominance model fit the data. This indicates that the cross-resistant trait is a dominant to semidominant trait.

The recent introduction of glufosinate-resistant and glyphosate-resistant crops provides growers with new options for weed management. Information is needed to compare the effectiveness of glufosinate and glyphosate on annual weeds. Greenhouse trials were conducted to determine the response of barnyardgrass (Echinochloa crus-galli), common lambsquarters (Chenopodium album), common ragweed (Ambrosia artemisiifolia), fall panicum (Panicum dichotomiflorum), giant foxtail (Setaria faberi), large crabgrass (Digitaria sanguinalis), and velvetleaf (Abutilon theophrasti) to glufosinate and glyphosate. The response of velvetleaf and common lambsquarters was investigated at multiple stages of growth. Glufosinate and glyphosate were applied to each weed species at logarithmically incremented rates. The glufosinate and glyphosate rates that provided a 50% reduction in aboveground weed biomass, commonly referred to as GR50 values, were compared using nonlinear regression techniques. Barnyardgrass, common ragweed, fall panicum, giant foxtail, and large crabgrass responded similarly to glufosinate and glyphosate. Common lambsquarters 4 to 8 cm in height was more sensitive to glufosinate than glyphosate. In contrast, 15- to 20-cm tall-velvetleaf was more sensitive to glyphosate than glufosinate.

Cloransulam postemergence (POST), diclosulam preemergence (PRE), and flumetsulam preplant incorporated (PPI) and POST were evaluated in six trials at two locations for control of sicklepod and pitted morningglory in soybean. Sicklepod control with cloransulam plus flumetsulam POST was equivalent to chlorimuron POST in seven of eight comparisons both 3 and 6 wk after treatment. Sicklepod control with cloransulam POST was equivalent to chlorimuron in only three of eight comparisons 3 wk after treatment, but late-season control was equivalent in five of six comparisons. Pitted morningglory control with cloransulam alone or in tank-mixture with flumetsulam POST was equivalent to chlorimuron in all comparisons. Control of sicklepod and pitted morningglory was greater in most comparisons when a POST application followed flumetsulam plus trifluralin PPI compared to only trifluralin PPI. In a total PRE stale seedbed system, where all treatments were tank-mixed with pendimethalin plus glyphosate, sicklepod control with all rates of flumetsulam and 26 or 35 g ai/ha diclosulam was equivalent to the standard treatment of imazaquin or metribuzin plus chlorimuron. None of the total PRE programs controlled sicklepod as well as when glyphosate was applied sequentially POST. Pitted morningglory was controlled 83 to 93% with 26 or 35 g/ha diclosulam, equivalent to imazaquin, metribuzin plus chlorimuron, or sequential glyphosate applications 8 wk after the PRE application. Increasing flumetsulam rate increased pitted morningglory control early season, but flumetsulam was not as effective as the other herbicides.

Producers in the central Great Plains are seeking alternative strategies to manage weeds because of herbicide resistance, narrow profit margins, and a lack of registered herbicides in some crops. Thus, we evaluated the impact of cultural systems in winter wheat and tillage on weed dynamics in corn, sunflower, and proso millet planted the year following wheat harvest. Weed seedling densities were 25 to 30% lower in a no-till system compared with minimum-till with a sweep plow. With no-till, cultural systems that produced more crop residue reduced weed densities an additional 15 to 30%, compared with the conventional system. Cultural system effect was eliminated in dry years and by tillage. Weed biomass was 10-fold less in proso millet than in corn. Crop residue management, critical for successful cropping in semiarid regions, also will help weed management by reducing weed density in summer annual crops, especially in no-till systems.

Quinclorac was registered for weed control in wheat (Triticum spp.) for western Canada in 1997. Residues from quinclorac may persist in the soil and may damage following crops; therefore, field and growth chamber experiments were conducted to determine the tolerance of several following rotational crops. Cereals and bromegrass (Bromus biebersteinii) were sufficiently tolerant that they could be seeded within 16 d of quinclorac application without risk of injury. At the other extreme, marketable and total potato (Solanum tuberosum) yields were reduced by quinclorac on irrigated land 1 yr after application. Growth chamber experiments were used to rank crops in order of their tolerance of quinclorac residues and to compare the tolerance of crops that were grown in the field with additional crops. Quinclorac injured several legume and oilseed crops when the crops were seeded immediately after application, but quinclorac did not reduce the dry matter yield of two of the most sensitive legumes, faba bean (Vicia faba) and alfalfa (Medicago sativa), 1 yr after application on irrigated land. However, based on a previous study, one can conclude that injury to these crops may occur in the field under drought conditions in rain-fed agricultural systems.

Field studies were conducted at Arlington, WI, in 1996 and 1997 and at Georgetown, DE, and LeSueur, MN, in 1997 to determine weed control efficacy, crop injury, and yield response of PAT-transformed sweet corn to glufosinate-based weed management. Sequential applications of glufosinate 10 to 18 d apart at 0.4 and 0.3 kg ai/ha controlled common lambsquarters, common ragweed, velvetleaf, wild-proso millet, and fall panicum 90% or better at all locations. Weed control varied little among 0.3, 0.4, or 0.3 and 0.3 (sequential) kg/ha glufosinate rates. Glufosinate applied alone, with, or following atrazine controlled velvetleaf 90% or greater but was less consistent on common ragweed and common lambsquarters (73 to 100%). Atrazine plus metolachlor applied preemergence (PRE) and glufosinate applied alone postemergence (POST) provided inconsistent wild-proso millet and fall panicum control (43 to 99%). Metolachlor followed by glufosinate improved consistency of grass control (> 76%). Glufosinate followed by cultivation provided 80% or greater control of velvetleaf and wild-proso millet. Glufosinate did not injure or delay maturity of PAT-transformed sweet corn. Sweet corn treated with glufosinate resulted in yields greater than or equal to the sweet corn that was hand-weeded or received a standard herbicide treatment.

Greenhouse and laboratory experiments were conducted to study activity, rainfastness, absorption, and translocation of glyphosate with and without a nonionic organosilicone surfactant in purple nutsedge. Purple nutsedge responded differently to glyphosate depending on growth stage. Glyphosate at 2.24 kg ai/ha in 17-d-old and at 4.48 kg/ha in 10-wk-old plants controlled purple nutsedge at least 96%. Regrowth of plants and tuber resprouting were greatly reduced in these treatments. Organosilicone surfactant did not increase efficacy of glyphosate. A simulated rainfall of 2.5 cm (7.5 cm/h intensity) at 1 and 24 h after glyphosate application reduced efficacy by one-half and one-third, respectively, compared with no simulated rainfall. A rain-free period of 72 h prevented loss of glyphosate activity. Absorption of 14C-glyphosate increased from 2.8% at 1 h after application to 21.4% at 168 h after application and translocation increased from 0.43% at 1 h after application to 5.18% at 168 h after application. Organosilicone surfactant did not affect absorption and translocation of glyphosate in purple nutsedge.

Under greenhouse conditions, annual bluegrass (Poa annua L.), common groundsel (Senecio vulgaris L.), shepherd's purse [Capsella bursa-pastoris (L.) Medicus], small nettle (Urtica urens L.), canola (Brassica napus L. ssp. napus), and pea (Pisum sativa L.) differed in sensitivity to ultraviolet (UV) radiation. Of the weed species, annual bluegrass was the least sensitive; whereas, among the crop species, canola was about sevenfold more sensitive than was pea. The sensitivity of a species to UV radiation was highly dependent upon its stage of development. The study indicates some potential for using UV radiation to control weeds, but the method needs further investigation to unravel the selectivity of the methods and potential health hazards.

Field trials were conducted to evaluate the influence of three application methods and two types of ground cover on the transport of metolachlor and simazine from container-grown junipers. Application methods used were broadcast spray, broadcast granules, and individual container applications. Woven ground cloth and woven ground cloth plus gravel were used as ground covers. The site received daily irrigation, and surface runoff was sampled and analyzed 0, 1,2, 4, 8, 16, 32, and 56 d after herbicide application. Application method had the greatest effect on herbicide concentrations in runoff. Herbicide application to individual containers resulted in lower simazine and metolachlor concentrations in runoff. Herbicide concentrations took longer to drop below detection levels in surface runoff from broadcast applications.

Soil moisture, relative humidity (RH), and the addition of bentazon were examined for effects on absorption and translocation of 14C-imazethapyr in common ragweed. When common ragweed was growing under conditions of low soil moisture (-300 kPa), absorption of 14C-imazethapyr was reduced from 51 to 42%. Translocation of 14C-imazethapyr was not affected by soil moisture. In the absence of bentazon, absorption and translocation of 14C-imazethapyr was similar at 65 and 85% RH 48 and 168 h after treatment. Bentazon decreased absorption of 14C-imazethapyr from 61 to 26% at 65% RH and from 65 to 57% at 85% RH 168 h after treatment. Bentazon decreased translocation of 14C-imazethapyr from 35 to 9% at 65% RH and from 30 to 21% at 85% RH when averaged over time. This reduction in the absorption and translocation of 14C-imazethapyr when bentazon was added may result in a reduction in common ragweed control compared to imazethapyr alone when RH is 65% or lower.