The completion of the SCAR Antarctic digital database (ADD) has provided a new basis for statistical calculations for Antarctica: data-sets are available at the scale of the original source material, and generalised to 1:1,000,000, 1:3,000,000, 1:10,000,000, and 1:30,000,000. The new descriptive statistics presented are based on the ADD 1:1,000,000 data-set since this is the largest scale at which source maps provided complete cover of the coastline and ice-free areas. The statistics include the total length and proportions of coastline types and the total area of Antarctica with the proportions of its constituent feature types. The areas of the Ross and Filchner-Ronne ice shelves have also been computed. Whilst the total area of Antarctica has remained static compared with previous studies, the relative proportions of coastline types and constituent feature types within the total area show significant changes. In particular the calculated area of ice-free ground is only approximately one-seventh of that often quoted from previous studies. The changes reported result from improved mapping, reinterpretation of data, and actual changes of coastline.

The Mapping Application for Penguin Populations and Projected Dynamics (MAPPPD) is a web-based, open access, decision-support tool designed to assist scientists, non-governmental organisations and policy-makers working to meet the management objectives as set forth by the Commission for the Conservation of Antarctic Marine Living Resources (CCAMLR) and other components of the Antarctic Treaty System (ATS) (that is, Consultative Meetings and the ATS Committee on Environmental Protection). MAPPPD was designed specifically to complement existing efforts such as the CCAMLR Ecosystem Monitoring Program (CEMP) and the ATS site guidelines for visitors. The database underlying MAPPPD includes all publicly available (published and unpublished) count data on emperor, gentoo, Adélie and chinstrap penguins in Antarctica. Penguin population models are used to assimilate available data into estimates of abundance for each site and year. Results are easily aggregated across multiple sites to obtain abundance estimates over any user-defined area of interest. A front end web interface located at www.penguinmap.com provides free and ready access to the most recent count and modelled data, and can act as a facilitator for data transfer between scientists and Antarctic stakeholders to help inform management decisions for the continent.

A new emphasis on understanding natural systems at large spatial scales has led to an interest in deriving ecological variables from satellite reflectance images. The normalized difference vegetation index (NDVI) is a measure of canopy greenness that can be derived from reflectances at near-infrared and red wavelengths. For this study we investigated the relationships between NDVI and leaf-area index (LAI), intercepted photosynthetically active radiation (IPAR), and biomass in an Arctic tundra ecosystem. Reflectance spectra from a portable field spectrometer, LAI, IPAR, and biomass data were collected for 180 vegetation samples near Toolik Lake and Imnavait Creek, Alaska, during July and August 1993. NDVI values were calculated from red and near-infrared reflectances of the field spectrometer spectra. Strong linear relationships are seen between mean NDVI for major vegetation categories and mean LAI and biomass. The relationship between mean NDVI and mean IPAR for these categories is not significant. Average NDVI values for major vegetation categories calculated from a SPOT image of the study area were found to be highly linearly correlated to average field NDVI measurements for the same categories. This indicates that in this case it is appropriate to apply equations derived for field-based NDVI measurements to NDVI images. Using the regression equations for those relationships, biomass and LAI images were calculated from the SPOT NDVI image. The resulting images show expected trends in LAI and biomass across the landscape.

The patterns of the normalized difference vegetation index (NDVI) on three glacial surfaces of different ages in the vicinity of Toolik Lake, Alaska, were examined. NDVI was derived from SPOT multispectral digital data, and the images were stratified according to boundaries on glacial geology and vegetation maps. Ground-level measurements of NDVI from common vegetation types were also collected, using a portable spectrometer. Late Pleistocene glacial surfaces have lower image-NDVI than older Middle Pleistocene surfaces, and the mean NDVI is correlated with approximate time since deglaciation. The trends are related to differences in NDVI associated with vegetation growing on mineral vs peaty substrates. Nonacidic mineral substrates are more common on the younger landscapes, and acidic peaty soils are more common on the older surfaces. The field-NDVIs of acidic dry, moist, and wet tundra are consistently higher than those of corresponding nonacidic tundra types. These same trends are seen when the SPOT NDVI image is stratified according to vegetation boundaries appearing on two detailed vegetation maps in the region. Above-ground biomass of moist and wet acidic tundra is significantly greater than corresponding nonacidic types. Vegetation species composition was examined along two transects on the oldest and youngest glacial surfaces. Shrub cover is the most important factor affecting the spectral signatures and biomass. Older surfaces have greater cover of shrub-rich tussock tundra and shrub-filled water tracks, and the younger surfaces have more dry, well-drained sites with low biomass and relatively barren nonsorted circles and stripes. These trends are related to paludification and modification of the terrain by geomorphic and geochemical processes. Similar patterns of spectral reflectance have been noted in association with a variety of large-scale natural disturbances in northern Alaska. However, extrapolation of these results to much broader regions of the circumpolar Arctic will require the use of sensors covering larger areas, such as the AVHRR aboard the NOAA satellites.

A survey of ice growth and decay processes on a selection of shallow and deep sub-Arctic and Arctic lakes was conducted using radiometrically calibrated ERS-1 SAR images. Time series of radar backscatter data were compiled for selected sites on the lakes during the period of ice cover (September to June) for the years 1991–92 and 1992–93. A variety of lake-ice processes could be observed, and significant changes in backscatter occurred from the time of initial ice formation in autumn until the onset of the spring thaw. Backscatter also varied according to the location and depth of the lakes. The spatial and temporal changes in backscatter were most constant and predictable at the shallow lakes on the North Slope of Alaska. As a consequence, they represent the most promising sites for long-term monitoring and the detection of changes related to global warming and its effects on the polar regions.

Early explorers in the Canadian high Arctic described a fringe of thick, landfast ice along the 500-km northern coast of Ellesmere Island. This article shows from analyses of historical records, aerial photographs, and satellite imagery (ERS-1, SPOT, RADARSAT-1) that this ancient ice feature (‘Ellesmere Ice Shelf’) underwent a 90% reduction in area during the course of the twentieth century. In addition, hydrographic profiles in Disraeli Fiord (83°N, 74°W) suggest that the ice-shelf remnant that presently dams the fiord (Ward Hunt Ice Shelf) decreased in thickness by 13 m (27%) from 1967 to 1999. Mean annual air temperatures at nearby Alert station showed a significant warming trend during the last two decades of this period, and a significant decline in the number of freezing degree days per annum. The ice-dammed fiord provides a stratified physical and biological environment (epishelf lake) of a type that is otherwise restricted to Antarctica. Extensive meltwater lakes occur on the surface of the ice shelf and support a unique microbial food web. The major contraction of these ice–water habitats foreshadows a much broader loss of marine cryo-ecosystems that will accompany future wanning in the high Arctic.

This article is concerned with the knowledge of sea ice as developed and transmitted by the Inuit of Igloolik (Nunavut, Canada). The information on which this article is based was obtained from travelling, observation, and interviewing carried out from October 2000 to May 2001 in Igloolik, as well as several existing interviews from the Igloolik Oral History Project database. Inuit knowledge of sea ice reveals a deep understanding of the complex relationships between ice, currents, the Moon, and the winds, as well as a holistic approach to knowledge where classification based on a western scientific approach becomes difficult, if not counter-productive. Through detailed knowledge of ice topography, sea ice becomes a familiar territory for the Inuit of Igloolik, and, through the understanding of the ‘codes’ of the moving ice, its changing nature becomes predictable. This article does not pretend to give a full account of a system of knowledge the understanding of which requires a lifetime of practice and observation. However, it describes some of its elements and offer some insights regarding this complex aspect of Inuit Qaujimajatuqangit (Inuit knowledge, also known as IQ).

Cyanobacteria and eukaryotic algae were investigated during three seasons in 18 plots established across Sverdrup Pass valley of central Ellesmere Island, 79°N, Canada. The sites differed in altitude, substratum, and other characteristics. A high species diversity totalled 136 taxa. Cyanobacteria accounted for 52 and eukaryotic algae 84 species. In both groups, numerous species did not correspond to any taxa described. However, high diversity did not always coincide with high algal abundance or biomass. On older and stable landscapes, visible crusts developed, containing mostly cyanobacteria, fungi, and other microbial components. Considerable variation in algal diversity and abundance was found among the sites. Also the southern, granitic portion of the pass was richer in green algae compared to its northern, dolomitic portion where motile cyanobacteria were more prominent. These micro-autotrophs occupied the soil profile to a depth of 7 cm. Their highest density was not at the surface but at 3–4 cm depth. One plot was contaminated by windblown copper-rich dust from a nearby outcrop and soil here was poorest in content of photosynthetic pigments, suggesting a local heavy-metal toxicity.

The Antarctic continent and its off-lying islands are probably the part of the world least disturbed by man. If all human activity beyond latitude 60°S ceased, all that would remain would be the remnants of scientific stations and a few dilapidated structures associated with Antarctic whaling when it was a land-based industry. Many hold the view that efforts should be made to retain this near-pristine condition and there is therefore widespread opposition to all forms of commercial enterprise in the Antarctic, including tourism. While there may be grounds for opposing the harvesting of living resources because of the possibility of over-exploitation, and for opposing the extraction of Antarctic minerals because of the danger of irreversible environmental damage, opposition to tourism, especially as there are no facilities in the Antarctic specifically designed for their benefit, seems more difficult to justify.

Stomachs of 171 vertebrates (two species offish, eight of birds and twoof seals) from Hornsund, Svalbard, were collected between 7 September and 5 October 1984. Arctic cod Boreogadus saida and the amphipod Pamthemisto libellula were the main prey species of black guillemots Cepphus grylle, little auks Alle alle, puffins Fratercula arctica, Brunnich's guillemots Uria lomvia, kittiwakes Rissa tridactyla and ringed seals Phoca hispida. Fulmars Fulmarus glacialis preyed mainly on the squid Gonatusfabricii and the polychaete Nereis irrorata. Eiders Somateria mollissima preyed mainly on bivalves and on the amphipod Gammarellus homari. G. homari and Gammarus oceanicus were the most important prey species of striped snailfish Liparis liparis, while shorthorn sculpin Myoxocephalus scorpius mainly preyed upon G. homari and Anonyx sarsi. Glaucous gulls LOTUS hyperboreus took many different prey including birds and tundra plants. Only one bearded seal Erignathus barbatus stomach with content was available for this study.

In the light of data from the Greenland ice sheet concerning the ice-age climate, and palaeoecological studies of interglacial and Early Holocene deposits, the concept that a large proportion of Greenland's plants and animals may have survived during the ice ages is evaluated. While ice-free areas (refugias) were present, it is concluded that only hardy, cold-adapted species could have survived, which also explains why so few clearly endemic species are present in Greenland. Most members of the present biota are considered to be postglacial immigrants. Some species came to Greenland by walking or flying, but most arrived by passive, long-distance, chance dispersal, carried by wind, sea currents, and, in particular, birds. Transport by birds may explain why so many species arrived from Europe, because vast numbers of geese in particular migrate from northwest Europe to Greenland.

Two complementary studies were conducted to investigate both the immediate and longer-term influence of Antarctic cruise tourism experiences on participants’ knowledge of Antarctica, attitudes toward management issues facing the Antarctic region, and environmental behaviours and future intentions. In addition, the study investigated tourists’ attitudes toward visitor guidelines. The results suggest that Antarctica nature-based tourism operators have the potential to provide experiences that educate the public to the importance of Antarctica.

The history of biotic exploitation for the continental margin (shelf and slope) of the Antarctic Large Marine Ecosystem (LME) is reviewed, with emphasis on the period from 1970 to 2010. In the Antarctic Peninsula portion, marine mammals were decimated by the 1970s and groundfish by the early 1980s. Fishing for Antarctic krill Euphausia superba began upon the demise of groundfish and now is the only fishing that remains in this region. Surveys show that cetacean and most groundfish stocks remain severely depressed, harvest of which is now prohibited by the International Whaling Commission and the Commission for the Conservation of Antarctic Marine Living Resources (CCAMLR). On the other hand, krill fishing in this region is underway and in recent years has contributed up to 72% of the Southern Ocean catch, depending on fishing conditions and the CCAMLR conservation measures in force. Elsewhere along the Antarctic continental margin, marine mammals were also severely depleted by the 1970s, followed directly by relatively low-level fisheries for krill that continued until the early 1990s. Recently in these areas, where fin-fishing is still allowed, fisheries for Antarctic toothfish Dissostichus mawsoni have been initiated, with one of this fish's main prey, grenadiers Macrourus spp., being taken significantly as by-catch. Continental margin fishing currently accounts for ~25% of the total toothfish catch of the Southern Ocean. Fishing along the Antarctic continental margin, especially the Antarctic Peninsula region, is a clear case of both the tragedy of the commons and ‘fishing down the food web’.

Noaa Avhrr and Landsat MSS imagery acquired between January and November 1986 has shown substantial changes in the Antarctic coastline near the Filchner Ice Shelf, Larsen Ice Shelf and Thwaites Glacier. In the Filchner Ice Shelf area some 11,500 km of ice calved from mid-April onward. In the Larsen Ice Shelf area two large bergs calved between February and August. The combined volume of ice from these two events equals approximately three years' normal calving from the entire Antarctic coastline. In the Thwaites Glacier area several changes appear to have occurred at the base of Thwaites Iceberg Tongue and Thwaites Glacier Tongue.

In recent years, phenomena observed in two quite separate fields of study have led to the suggestion that radio waves may propagate through cold ice masses with sufficiently small loss by absorption to permit the thickness to be measured, and some information about the nature of the bottom surface to be derived by radar. This article describes first some work by the United States Army Signal Research and Development Laboratory arising out of spurious echoes noticed on radio altimeters (ground clearance indicators) carried by aircraft flying in the polar regions. Afterwards it reviews work at the Scott Polar Research Institute where unexpected phenomena on some IGY ionosondes operated in the Antarctic have led to the development of a radio instrument specifically to measure ice thickness.

With the melting of sea ice in the Arctic, the potential for higher shipping access has markedly changed. Shipping activity in the Arctic is increasing, including tourism and exploration activities, underlining the need for reliable communication and monitoring. This article examines the interactions between climate and sea ice change, the patterns of cruise ship tourism through Arctic Canada and the interest of operators to increase their activities in the cruise tourism market in the region. Since 1995, the melting of the summer pack ice in the offers the possibilities of increased shipping in this region while encouraging speculation regarding the potential of the northwest passage (NWP) and the Canadian Arctic to become a major cruise maritime highway. Integrating research from both human and transport geography, this article presents an analysis of vessel movements. It also analyses perceptions of charters and cruise ship operators and of their interests in the cruise tourism market. Discussion is focused on issues associated with the lack of available vessels and maritime infrastructure, regulations in the Canadian arctic waters, security and search and rescue. This research could prove useful for communities, and policy makers, as well as the cruise sector itself, with regard to response to change in these remote locations.

Poa annua is the only flowering plant species that has established a breeding population in the maritime Antarctic, through repeated anthropogenic introduction. The first appearance of this species in the Antarctic was observed in 1953. Annual bluegrass inhabits mainly anthropogenic sites, but recently has entered tundra communities. The functioning of P. annua in the Antarctic could not have been possible without adaptations that enable the plants to persist in the specific climatic conditions typical for this zone. Poa annua is highly adaptable to environmental stress and unstable habitats: huge phenotypic and genotypic variability, small size, plastic life cycle (life-history types ranging from annual to perennial forms). The spreading of P. annua in the Antarctic Peninsula region is a classic example of the expansion process following anthropogenic introduction of an invasive species, and illustrates the dangers to Antarctic terrestrial ecosystems that are associated with increasing human traffic.

Approximately 39 000 tourists have visited Antarctica since 1957; numbers peryearare provided. Abrief history of sea and airborne tourism in Antarctica reveals past and current trends. The formation of the International Association of Antarctica Tour Operators and its role in the self-regulated tourism industry in Antarctica are considered, together with the implications of recently-promulgated Antarctic Treaty Recommendation XVI-13. The number of tourists visiting Antarctica is shown to exceed the combined number of scientists and support personnel from all National Antarctic Programs. It is concluded that the ATS provides a suitable framework within which to develop measures to protect Antarctica from tourist activity. However, regulations developed must be based on hard data on the size and impact of the industry to be effectively implemented.

In 1967 the Scott Polar Research Institute (SPRI) undertook the first longrange airborne radio echo soundings of the Antarctic ice sheet. The results of this season were encouraging and led to other programmes being organized in 1969–70, 1971–72, and 1974–75. The initial impetus for this work came from A. P. Crary of the US National Science Foundation (NSF), who suggested that the radio echo equipment that had been developed at SPRI under the direction of S. Evans and G. de Q. Robin, with financial assistance from the Royal Society's Paul Instrument Fund and later from the Natural Environment Research Council (NERC) should be operated over the Antarctic ice sheet, and he offered the logistic support of the US Antarctic Research Program (USARP). Since those early flights, a productive relationship has been developed between SPRI and that arm of NSF represented by USARP and US Navy Task Force 43 (now 199) and, up to the end of the 1971–72 season, it had resulted in 210000 km of radio echo profiling in the Antarctic. A further 135 000 km was accomplished during the 1974–75 season.

Satellite images of Ronne and Filchner ice shelves show a variety of surface features many of which are believed to indicate flow lines in the ice. Sufficient imagery is now available from Landsat satellites to plot these features from mosaics. Although some of the features have been recognized from aircraft, it was not until an overall view was provided that the true extent of the features and their relationship to the major ice streams became apparent. Using this evidence together with published ice thickness data from radio echo and seismic sounding, flow patterns within the ice shelves and tributary glaciers can be inferred.