Entamoeba histolytica is the protozoan parasite causative of human amoebiasis, disease responsible for 40 000–100 000 deaths annually. The cysteine proteinase-adhesin complex of this parasite (EhCPADH) is a heterodimeric protein formed by a cysteine protease (EhCP112) and an adhesin (EhADH) that plays an important role in the cytopathic mechanism of this parasite. The coding genes for EhCP112 and EhADH are adjacent in the E. histolytica genome, suggesting that their expression may be co-regulated, but this hypothesis has not yet been confirmed. Here, we performed the knockdown of EhCP112 and EhADH using gene-specific short-hairpin RNAs (shRNA), and the effect of these knockdowns on the expression of both complex components as well as on the in vitro and in vivo virulence was analysed. Results showed that the knockdown of one of the EhCPADH components produced a simultaneous downregulation of the other protein. Accordingly, a concomitant reduction in the overall expression of the complex was observed. The downregulation of each component also produced a significant decrease in the in vitro and in vivo virulence of trophozoites. These results demonstrated that the expression of EhCP112 and EhADH is co-regulated and confirmed that the EhCPADH complex plays an important role in E. histolytica virulence.

Increased hydrogen ion concentration and decreased carbonate ion concentration in seawater are the most physiologically relevant consequences of ocean acidification (OA). Changes to either chemical species may increase the metabolic cost of physiological processes in marine organisms, and reduce the energy available for growth, reproduction and survival. Parasitic infection also increases the energetic demands experienced by marine organisms, and may reduce host tolerance to stressors associated with OA. This study assessed the combined metabolic effects of parasitic infection and OA on an intertidal gastropod, Zeacumantus subcarinatus. Oxygen consumption rates and tissue glucose content were recorded in snails infected with one of three trematode parasites, and an uninfected control group, maintained in acidified (7·6 and 7·4 pH) or unmodified (8·1 pH) seawater. Exposure to acidified seawater significantly altered the oxygen consumption rates and tissue glucose content of infected and uninfected snails, and there were clear differences in the magnitude of these changes between snails infected with different species of trematode. These results indicate that the combined effects of OA and parasitic infection significantly alter the energy requirements of Z. subcarinatus, and that the species of the infecting parasite may play an important role in determining the tolerance of marine gastropods to OA.

H+-pyrophosphatases (H+-PPases) are integral membrane proteins that couple pyrophosphate energy to an electrochemical gradient across biological membranes and promote the acidification of cellular compartments. Eukaryotic organisms, essentially plants and protozoan parasites, contain various types of H+-PPases associated with vacuoles, plasma membrane and acidic Ca+2 storage organelles called acidocalcisomes. We used Lysotracker Red DND-99 staining to identify two acidic cellular compartments in trophozoites of the marine scuticociliate parasite Philasterides dicentrarchi: the phagocytic vacuoles and the alveolar sacs. The membranes of these compartments also contain H+-PPase, which may promote acidification of these cell structures. We also demonstrated for the first time that the P. dicentrarchi H+-PPase has two isoforms: H+-PPase 1 and 2. Isoform 2, which is probably generated by splicing, is located in the membranes of the alveolar sacs and has an amino acid motif recognized by the H+-PPase-specific antibody PABHK. The amino acid sequences of different isolates of this ciliate are highly conserved. Gene and protein expression in this isoform are significantly regulated by variations in salinity, indicating a possible physiological role of this enzyme and the alveolar sacs in osmoregulation and salt tolerance in P. dicentrarchi.

Plants containing condensed tannins (CT) may have potential to control gastrointestinal nematodes (GIN) of cattle. The aim was to investigate the anthelmintic activities of four flavan-3-ols, two galloyl derivatives and 14 purified CT fractions, and to define which structural features of CT determine the anti-parasitic effects against the main cattle nematodes. We used in vitro tests targeting L1 larvae (feeding inhibition assay) and adults (motility assay) of Ostertagia ostertagi and Cooperia oncophora. In the larval feeding inhibition assay, O. ostertagi L1 were significantly more susceptible to all CT fractions than C. oncophora L1. The mean degree of polymerization of CT (i.e. average size) was the most important structural parameter: large CT reduced larval feeding more than small CT. The flavan-3-ols of prodelphinidin (PD)-type tannins had a stronger negative influence on parasite activity than the stereochemistry, i.e. cis- vs trans-configurations, or the presence of a gallate group. In contrast, for C. oncophora high reductions in the motility of larvae and adult worms were strongly related with a higher percentage of PDs within the CT fractions while there was no effect of size. Overall, the size and the percentage of PDs within CT seemed to be the most important parameters that influence anti-parasitic activity.

Although many parasites are transmitted between hosts by a suite of arthropod vectors, the impact of vector biodiversity on parasite transmission is poorly understood. Positive relationships between host infection prevalence and vector species richness (SR) may operate through multiple mechanisms, including (i) increased vector abundance, (ii) a sampling effect in which species of high vectorial capacity are more likely to occur in species-rich communities, and (iii) functional diversity whereby communities comprised species with distinct phenologies may extend the duration of seasonal transmission. Teasing such mechanisms apart is impeded by a lack of appropriate data, yet could highlight a neglected role for functional diversity in parasite transmission. We used statistical modelling of extensive host, vector and microparasite data to test the hypothesis that functional diversity leading to longer seasonal transmission explained variable levels of disease in a wildlife population. We additionally developed a simple transmission model to guide our expectation of how an increased transmission season translates to infection prevalence. Our study demonstrates that vector SR is associated with increased levels of disease reporting, but not via increases in vector abundance or via a sampling effect. Rather, the relationship operates by extending the length of seasonal transmission, in line with theoretical predictions.

We examined the effects of Haemoproteus infection on the survival and pathology caused in the biting midges. Forty-six females of Culicoides impunctatus were exposed experimentally by allowing them to feed on a naturally infected red-backed shrike infected with Haemoproteus lanii (lineage hRB1, gametocytaemia 5·2%). Seventeen females were fed on an uninfected bird (controls). Dead insects were collected, counted and used for dissection, histological examination and polymerase chain reaction-based testing. Parasites were present in all experimentally infected biting midges, but absent from control insects. Survivorship differed significantly between the control and infected groups. Twelve hours post-exposure (PE), 45 (98%) experimentally infected midges were dead, but all control midges remained alive, and many of them survived until 7 day PE. The migrating ookinetes of H. lanii overfilled midgut, markedly damaged the midgut wall, entered the haemocoel and overfilled the abdomen and thorax of exposed biting midges. Massive infection by migrating ookinetes led to damage of abdomen and thorax of biting midges. The parasites often present in large clumps in the haemocoel in abdomen and thorax, leading to the interruption of the haemolymph circulation. These are the main reasons for rapid death of biting midges after feeding on high-intensity infections of Haemoproteus parasites.

Rhodnius prolixus is a blood-feeding insect that transmits Trypanosoma cruzi and Trypanosoma rangeli to vertebrate hosts. Rhodnius prolixus is also a classical model in insect physiology, and the recent availability of R. prolixus genome has opened new avenues on triatomine research. Glycogen synthase kinase 3 (GSK-3) is classically described as a key enzyme involved in glycogen metabolism, also acting as a downstream component of the Wnt pathway during embryogenesis. GSK-3 has been shown to be highly conserved among several organisms, mainly in the catalytic domain region. Meanwhile, the role of GSK-3 during R. prolixus embryogenesis or glycogen metabolism has not been investigated. Here we show that chemical inhibition of GSK-3 by alsterpaullone, an ATP-competitive inhibitor of GSK3, does not affect adult survival rate, though it alters oviposition and egg hatching. Specific GSK-3 gene silencing by dsRNA injection in adult females showed a similar phenotype. Furthermore, bright field and 4’−6-diamidino-2-phenylindole (DAPI) staining analysis revealed that ovaries and eggs from dsGSK-3 injected females exhibited specific morphological defects. We also demonstrate that glycogen content was inversely related to activity and transcription levels of GSK-3 during embryogenesis. Lastly, after GSK-3 knockdown, we observed changes in the expression of the Wingless (Wnt) downstream target β-catenin as well as in members of other pathways such as the receptor Notch. Taken together, our results show that GSK-3 regulation is essential for R. prolixus oogenesis and embryogenesis.

Echinococcus granulosus (sensu lato) is now recognized as an assemblage of cryptic species, which differ considerably in morphology, development, host specificity (including infectivity/pathogenicity for humans) and other aspects. One of these species, E. granulosus sensu stricto (s.s.), is now clearly identified as the principal agent causing cystic echinococcosis in humans. Previous studies of a small section of the cox1 and nadh1 genes identified two variants of E. granulosus s.s. to be present in Australia; however, no further work has been carried out to characterize the microdiversity of the parasite in its territory. We have analysed the sequence of the full length of the cox1 gene (1609 bp) from 37 isolates of E. granulosus from different hosts and geographic regions of Australia. The analysis shows that seven haplotypes of E. granulosus s.s. not previously described were found, together with five haplotypes known to be present in other parts of the world, including the haplotype EG01 which is widespread and present in all endemic regions. These data extend knowledge related to the geographical spread and host range of E. granulosus s.s. in a country such as Australia in which the parasite established around 200 years ago.

The Brachylaimoidea are digenean parasites of vertebrates, including humans, domestic animals, poultry and wild game. Numerous Brachylaimoidea, particularly adults of Brachylaima and Leucochloridium, are difficult to identify to species. We provide and analyse sequences of two nuclear (18S rDNA, ITS2) and two mitochondrial (CO1, ND1) DNA loci of central European species of the Brachylaimoidea, namely Leucochloridium holostomum, Leucochloridium paradoxum, Leucochloridium perturbatum, Leucochloridium subtilis, Leucochloridium vogtianum, Urotocus rossitensis, Urogonimus macrostomus, Michajlovia migrata, Leucochloridiomorpha lutea, Brachylaima arcuatus, Brachylaima fuscata and Brachylaima mesostoma. We identified three clades in the genus Leucochloridium, which do not correspond to the previously suggested subgenera Neoleucochloridium, Papilloleucochloridium and Leucochloridium. We reject classification of Urotocus and Urogonimus in Leucochloridiinae, and, instead, re-establish the subfamilies Urotocinae and Urogoniminae. We synonymize the genus Renylaima with the genus Brachylaima. We reject M. migrata as a member of Leucochloridiinae sensu stricto or Brachylaimidae suggested by some previous authors. We found that the previously sequenced Glaphyrostomum sp. does not cluster with any hitherto sequenced Brachylaimidae. We also provide comparative measurements of the examined central European Brachylaimoidea, address the the specificity of their localization in the host and discuss their host-specific prevalence and intensity of infections based on the extensive dataset of birds examined in 1962–2015.

Calculating epidemiological measures of infection by Trypanosoma cruzi, the causative agent of Chagas disease, is complex, because it involves several species, different stages of infection in humans and multiple transmission routes. Using the next-generation matrix method, we analysed a model which considers the three stages of human infection, triatomines and dogs (the main domestic reservoirs of T. cruzi when triatomines are present) and the main transmission routes. We derived R0 and type-reproduction numbers T. We deduced formulas for the number of new infections generated through each transmission route by each infected individual. We applied our findings in Argentine Gran Chaco. The expressions achieved allowed quantifying the high infectivity of dogs and emphasizing the epidemiological importance of the long and asymptomatic chronic indeterminate stage in humans in the spread of the infection. According to the model, it is expected that one infected human infects 21 triatomines, that 100 infected triatomines are necessary to infect one human and 34 to infect a dog, and that each dog infects on average one triatomine per day. Our results may allow quantifying the effect of control measures on infected humans, triatomines and dogs (or other highly infected vertebrate) or on a specific route of transmission, in other scenarios.

Two experiments studied the effects of dietary chicory against gastrointestinal nematodes in cattle. In Experiment (Exp.) 1, stabled calves were fed chicory silage (CHI1; n = 9) or ryegrass/clover hay (CTL1; n = 6) with balanced protein/energy intakes between groups. After 16 days, all calves received 10 000 Ostertagia ostertagi and 66 000 Cooperia oncophora third-stage larvae (L3) [day (D) 0 post-infection (p.i.)]. In Exp. 2, calves were assigned to pure chicory (CHI2; n=10) or ryegrass/clover (CTL2; n = 10) pastures. After 7 days, animals received 20 000 O. ostertagi L3/calf (D0 p.i.) and were moved regularly preventing pasture-borne infections. Due to poor regrowth of the chicory pasture, CHI2 was supplemented with chicory silage. At D40 p.i. (Exp. 1) and D35 p.i. (Exp. 2) calves were slaughtered for worm recovery. In Exp.1, fecal egg counts (FEC) were similar between groups. However, O. ostertagi counts were significantly reduced in CHI1 by 60% (geometric mean; P < 0·01), whereas C. oncophora burdens were unaffected (P = 0·12). In Exp. 2, FEC were markedly lowered in CHI2 from D22 p.i onwards (P < 0·01). Ostertagia ostertagi adult burdens were significantly reduced in CHI2 by 66% (P < 0·001). Sesquiterpene lactones were identified only in chicory (fresh/silage). Chicory shows promise as an anti-Ostertagia feed for cattle and further studies should investigate its on-farm use.

Eukaryotic 5S rRNA, synthesized by RNA polymerase III (Pol III), is an essential component of the large ribosomal subunit. Most organisms contain hundreds of 5S rRNA genes organized into tandem arrays. However, the genome of the protozoan parasite Leishmania major contains only 11 copies of the 5S rRNA gene, which are interspersed and associated with other Pol III-transcribed genes. Here we report that, in general, the number and order of the 5S rRNA genes is conserved between different species of Leishmania. While in most organisms 5S rRNA genes are normally associated with the nucleolus, combined fluorescent in situ hybridization and indirect immunofluorescence experiments showed that 5S rRNA genes are mainly located at the nuclear periphery in L. major. Similarly, the tandemly repeated 5S rRNA genes in Trypanosoma cruzi are dispersed throughout the nucleus. In contrast, 5S rRNA transcripts in L. major were localized within the nucleolus, and scattered throughout the cytoplasm, where mature ribosomes are located. Unlike other rRNA species, stable antisense RNA complementary to 5S rRNA is not detected in L. major.

The gut epithelial barrier is a strategic place to prevent, or at least to limit, parasite dissemination upon oral infection with Toxoplasma gondii. Innate immunity to this pathogen results from delicate interactions involving different components of the infecting agent and the host. We herein aimed to examine the molecular mechanism by which protozoan DNA boosts the production of α-defensin-5 (DEFA-5), the main antimicrobial peptide at the target site of infection. The present study shows that DEFA-5 is rapidly upregulated in intestinal epithelial cells following intracellular Toll-like receptor 9 (TLR9) activation by unmethylated CpG motifs in DNA from T. gondii (CpG-DNA). Concomitantly, CpG-DNA purified from the pathogen markedly increased TLR9 mRNA expression levels in the Caco-2 cell line. We further verified that DEFA-5 production was dependent on interferon-β released from these cells upon treatment with CpG-DNA prepared from tachyzoites. Our results suggest that, in protozoan DNA-stimulated intestinal epithelial cells, the TLR9/interferon-β/DEFA-5 pathway may initiate an innate anti-T. gondii response without the need of parasite invasion. These findings highlight the key role of the gut epithelium in Toxoplasma recognition and amplification of local host defence against this microbe, thereby contributing to gain insight into immunoprotective mechanisms and to improve therapeutic strategies.

Myxozoans have been successfully used as tags for fish stock identification around the world. However, few studies using myxozoan tags have been carried out in the Southern Atlantic, a region with complex oceanography that constitutes a potentially suitable scenario for testing the utility of myxozoans as indicators. Its usefulness was tested using six samples of Merluccius hubbsi in two different regions of the Argentine Sea. Generalized linear models were performed to assess the effects of fish size and sex, and year and region of capture and selected using the Information Theoretic approach. Three myxozoan species were recorded: Kudoa rosenbuschi, Myxoproteus meridionalis and Fabespora sp. Results of modelling species individually showed differential capabilities for detecting geographical population structure at different spatial scales, with K. rosenbuschi and Fabespora sp. allowing the discrimination of northern and southern stocks, but Fabespora sp. also as a promissory indicator of intrapopulation sub-structure due to different migratory routes during non-reproductive periods. This work confirms that myxozoans offer a set of suitable markers at different spatial scales, which can be selected individually or in any combination, depending on the geographical extent of the study, constituting tools adaptable to the objectives of further research on fish population structure.

The reported incidence of the metastrongylid nematode Angiostrongylus vasorum, that infects dogs and other canids, is increasing worldwide outside recognized endemic foci. This apparent expansion of the parasite's range is causing concern to veterinary clinicians as the disease caused in dogs can be life threatening and its treatment is not straightforward. The red fox is thought to be a reservoir host for dogs. To investigate the spatial distribution of infection in foxes in Ireland, the hearts and lungs of 542 foxes from all over Ireland were examined. The incidence of infection was found to be 39·9% [95% confidence interval (CI) 35·7–44·1] with positive samples occurring in each of the country's 26 counties. This report confirms that the parasite is endemic in Ireland and the overall prevalence is the second highest in Europe. This is the first survey of A. vasorum infection in Irish foxes and highlights the potential exposure of the Irish dog population to high risk of cross-infection. Additionally, Crenosoma vulpis was found in seven of the foxes, a parasite not previously reported in the Irish fox.

Phosphatase activity of Leishmania spp. has been shown to deregulate the signalling pathways of the host cell. We here show that Leishmania mexicana promastigotes and amastigotes secrete proteins with phosphatase activity to the culture medium, which was higher in the Promastigote Secretion Medium (PSM) as compared with the Amastigote Secretion Medium (ASM) and was not due to cell lysis, since parasite viability was not affected by the secretion process. The biochemical characterization showed that the phosphatase activity present in PSM was higher in dephosphorylating the peptide END (pY) INASL as compared with the peptide RRA (pT)VA. In contrast, the phosphatase activity in ASM showed little dephosphorylating capacity for both peptides. Inhibition assays demonstrated that the phosphatase activity of both PSM and ASM was sensible only to protein tyrosine phosphatases inhibitors. An antibody against a protein phosphatase 2C (PP2C) of Leishmania major cross-reacted with a 44·9 kDa molecule in different cellular fractions of L. mexicana promastigotes and amastigotes, however, in PSM and ASM, the antibody recognized a protein about 70 kDa. By electron microscopy, the PP2C was localized in the flagellar pocket of amastigotes. PSM and ASM induced the production of tumor necrosis factor alpha, IL-1β, IL-12p70 and IL-10 in human macrophages.

Malaria is one of the most serious infectious diseases with ~250 million clinical cases annually. Most cases of severe disease are caused by Plasmodium falciparum. The blood stage of Plasmodium parasite is entirely responsible for malaria-associated pathology. Disease syndromes range from fever to more severe complications, including respiratory distress, metabolic acidosis, renal failure, pulmonary oedema and cerebral malaria. The most susceptible population to severe malaria is children under the age of 5, with low levels of immunity. It is only after many years of repeated exposure, that individuals living in endemic areas develop clinical immunity. This form of protection does not result in sterilizing immunity but prevents clinical episodes by substantially reducing parasite burden. Naturally acquired immunity predominantly targets blood-stage parasites and it is known to require antibody responses. A large body of epidemiological evidence suggests that antibodies to Plasmodium antigens are inefficiently generated and rapidly lost in the absence of ongoing exposure, which suggests a defect in the development of B cell immunological memory. This review summarizes the main findings to date contributing to our understanding on cellular processes underlying the slow acquisition of humoral immunity to malaria. Some of the key outstanding questions in the field are discussed.

The functional ultrastructure of eggs and cellular organization of hexacanths from gravid proglottids of Thysanotaenia congolensis, from black rats from Cape Verde, were examined by transmission electron microscopy. Mature eggs with fully formed hexacanths are grouped within parenchymatous capsules of gravid proglottids. Oncospheral envelopes surrounding mature hexacanths are reduced to a very thin membranous embryophore as their protective function is taken over by the parenchymatous capsules originating from the medullary parenchyma of immature proglottids and composed of three layers. Six major cell types are present: a bi-nucleate medullary centre; a six-nucleate U-shaped penetration gland; a second type of penetration gland; two neurosecretory-type nerve cells; about 30 somatic cells; and about 12 germinative cells. Present results on the functional ultrastructure of eggs and cellular organization of hexacanths support the phylogenetic distinction between T. congolensis and cestodes of the subfamily Anoplocephalinae.

In this paper we derive from first principles the expected body sizes of the parasite communities that can coexist in a mammal of given body size. We use a mixture of mathematical models and known allometric relationships to examine whether host and parasite life histories constrain the diversity of parasite species that can coexist in the population of any host species. The model consists of one differential equation for each parasite species and a single density-dependent nonlinear equation for the affected host under the assumption of exploitation competition. We derive threshold conditions for the coexistence and competitive exclusion of parasite species using invasion criteria and stability analysis of the resulting equilibria. These results are then used to evaluate the range of parasites species that can invade and establish in a target host and identify the ‘optimal’ size of a parasite species for a host of a given body size; ‘optimal’ is defined as the body size of a parasite species that cannot be outcompeted by any other parasite species. The expected distributions of parasites body sizes in hosts of different sizes are then compared with those observed in empirical studies. Our analysis predicts the relative abundance of parasites of different size that establish in the host and suggests that increasing the ratio of parasite body size to host body size above a minimum threshold increases the persistence of the parasite population.

Naturally acquired immunity to the blood-stage of the malaria parasite develops slowly in areas of high endemicity, but is not sterilizing. It manifests as a reduction in parasite density and clinical symptoms. Immunity as a result of blood-stage vaccination has not yet been achieved in humans, although there are many animal models where vaccination has been successful. The development of a blood-stage vaccine has been complicated by a number of factors including limited knowledge of human-parasite interactions and which antigens and immune responses are critical for protection. Opinion is divided as to whether this vaccine should aim to accelerate the acquisition of responses acquired following natural exposure, or whether it should induce a different response. Animal and experimental human models suggest that cell-mediated immune responses can control parasite growth, but these responses can also contribute to significant immunopathology if unregulated. They are largely ignored in most blood-stage malaria vaccine development strategies. Here, we discuss key observations relating to cell-mediated immune responses in the context of experimental human systems and field studies involving naturally exposed individuals and how this may inform the development of a blood-stage malaria vaccine.