Seed shape (SS) affects the yield and appearance of soybean seeds significantly. However, little detailed information has been reported about the quantitative trait loci (QTL) affecting SS, especially SS components such as seed length (SL), seed width (SW) and seed thickness (ST), and their mutual ratios of length-to-weight (SLW), length-to-thickness (SLT) and weight-to-thickness (SWT). The aim of the present study was to identify QTL underlying SS components using 129 recombinant inbred lines derived from a cross between Dongnong46 and L-100. Phenotypic data were collected from this population after it was grown across nine environments. A total of 213 simple sequence repeat markers were used to construct the genetic linkage map, which covered approximately 3623·39 cM, with an average distance of 17·01 cM between markers. Five QTL were identified as being associated with SL, five with SW, three with ST, four with SLW, two with SLT and three with SWT. These QTL could explain 1·46–22·16% of the phenotypic variation in SS component traits. Three QTL were identified in more than six tested environments three for SL, two for SW, one for ST, two for SLW and one for SLT. These QTL have great potential value for marker-assistant selection of SS in soybean seeds.

Remote sensing can efficiently support the quantification of crop water requirements included in the goal of assessing water footprints, which is to analyse how human activities or specific products relate to issues of water scarcity and pollution and identify how activities and products can become more sustainable from a water perspective. Remote sensing techniques have become popular in estimating actual crop evapotranspiration and hence crop water requirements in recent decades due to the advantages they offer to users, e.g. low cost, regional data and use of maps instead of point measurements as well as saving time. The use of earth observation data supports models’ accuracy in the procedure for assessing water footprint, since no average values are used: instead, users have real values for the specific parameters.

The present study provides two examples of how remote sensing techniques are used essentially for estimating evapotranspiration along with crop yield, two basic parameters, for assessing water footprint. Two different case studies have been illustrated to define the methodology proposed, which refers to Mediterranean conditions and can be applied after inferring the necessary field data of each crop. The first case study refers to the application of Surface Energy Balance Algorithm for Land (SEBAL) for estimating evapotranspiration, while the second refers to the Crop Yield prediction. Both elements, such as evapotranspiration and crop yield, are vital for water footprint accounting. Firstly, the SEBAL was adopted, under the essential adaptations for local soil and meteorological conditions for estimating groundnut water requirements. Landsat-5 TM, Landsat-7 Enhanced Thematic Mapper+ and Landsat 8 OLI images were used to retrieve the required spectral data. The SEBAL model is enhanced with empirical equations regarding crop canopy factors, in order to increase the accuracy of crop evapotranspiration estimation. Maps were created for evapotranspiration (ET) using the SEBAL modified model for the area of interest. The results were compared with measurements from an evaporation pan, used as a reference. Statistical comparisons showed that the modified SEBAL can predict ETc in a very effective and accurate way and provide water footprint modellers with high-level crop water data. Yield prediction plays a vital role in calculating water footprint. Having real values rather than taking reference (or averaged) values from FAO is an advantage that Earth Observation means can provide. This is very important in econometric or any other prediction models used for estimating water footprint because using average data reduces accuracy. In this context, crop and soil parameters along with remotely sensed data can be used to develop models that can provide users with accurate yield estimations. In a second step, crop and soil parameters along with the normalized difference vegetation index were correlated to examine whether crop yield can be predicted and to define the actual time-window to predict the yield. Statistical and remote sensing techniques were then applied to derive and map a model that can predict crop yield. The algorithm developed for this purpose indicates that remote sensing observations can predict crop yields effectively and accurately. Using the statistical Student's t test, it was found that there was no statistically significant difference between predicted and real values for crop yield.

Linseed is enjoying renewed popularity worldwide thanks to emerging market opportunities for raw material derived from seeds and stems. The dual-purpose cultivation is particularly attractive to growers for its capacity to yield both seed/oil and straw/fibre; however, field-based research is necessary to identify suitable cultivars to meet modern production goals. Under these premises, a 3-year experimental campaign was conducted to evaluate 18 linseed cultivars potentially interesting for dual-purpose cultivation in Northern Italy. Cultivar performance was evaluated in terms of seed, straw and fibre yield, oil composition and stem fibre content. Inter-annual weather variability explained the largest portion of the total variance. However, the ‘cultivar × year’ interaction was not significant except for seed oil content and composition. Stability analysis showed that at least half of the cultivars were unstable for oil content and α-linolenic acid fraction. A Structural Equation Model was developed to investigate causal relationships between the productive performance and factors such as environmental variables, phenological traits, plant size and density. Rainfall was beneficial to seed yield, both before and after flowering, whereas higher post-flowering air temperature had a depressive effect. A higher oil content was favoured by pre-flowering rainfall. Plant height was negatively associated with seed yield and oil content, but it was positively associated with straw and fibre yield. Plant density was critical for fibre yield since below 500 plants/m2 the increased plant branching makes it difficult to extract fibre. Together with plant density, plant height could be used to manipulate the seed/straw ratio according to production goals.

Detailed representation of ingesta inflow to and digesta outflow from the rumen is critical for improving the modelling of rumen function and herbage intake of grazing ruminants. The objective of the current work was to extend a mechanistic model of a grazing ruminant, MINDY, to simulate the dynamic links between ingestive and digestive processes as affected by forage and sward features (e.g. sward structure, herbage chemical composition) as well as the internal state of the animal. The work integrates existing aspects of forage ingestion, oral physiology and rumen digestion that influence ingesta characteristics and digesta outflows from the rumen, respectively. The paper describes the structure and function of the new development, assessing the new model in terms of dynamic changes of oral processing of ingesta and rumen dilution rate under different grazing contexts. MINDY reproduces characteristics of ingesta inflow to and digesta outflow from the rumen of grazing ruminants, achieving temporal patterns of occurrence within and between meals, similar to those for grazing animals reported in the literature. The model realistically simulates changes in particle size distribution of the ingestive bolus, bolus weight and rumen dilution rate in response to contrasting grazing management regimes. The new concepts encoded in MINDY capture the underlying biological mechanisms that drive the dynamic link between ingestion and digestion patterns. This development advances in the understanding and modelling of grazing and digestive behaviour patterns of free-ranging ruminants.

Chilling injury is an important natural stress that can threaten cotton production, especially at the sowing and seedling stages in early spring. It is therefore important for cotton production to improve chilling tolerance at these stages. The current work examines the potential for glycine betaine (GB) treatment of seeds to increase the chilling tolerance of cotton at the seedling stage. Germination under cold stress was increased significantly by GB treatment. Under low temperature, the leaves of seedlings from treated seeds exhibited a higher net photosynthetic rate (PN), higher antioxidant enzyme activity including superoxide dismutase, ascorbate peroxidase and catalase, lower hydrogen peroxide (H2O2) content and less damage to the cell membrane. Enzyme activity was correlated negatively with H2O2 content and degree of damage to the cell membrane but correlated positively with GB content. The experimental results suggested that although GB was only used to treat cotton seed, the beneficial effect caused by the preliminary treatment of GB could play a significant role during germination that persisted to at least the four-leaf seedling stage. Therefore, it is crucial that this method is employed in agricultural production to improve chilling resistance in the seedling stage by soaking the seeds in GB.

The aim of the current research is to analyse potential changes in the phenology of Cabernet Sauvignon under future climate change scenarios. The study compares results from two areas with different climatic conditions in Spain: Ribera del Duero and Penedès. Phenology data for budbreak (BB), bloom (BL), veraison (V) and maturity (M) were analysed for the period 2004–2015 in Ribera del Duero and for 1996–2012 in Penedès. Thermal requirements to initiate the growing cycle and to reach each phenological event were evaluated. Simulated data of changes in climate from eight models provided by Agencia Estatal de Meteorología (AEMET) of Spain, and for two Representative Concentration Pathways (RCP) (greenhouse gas concentration trajectories) – RCP4.5 and RCP8.5 by 2030, 2050 and 2070 were used. Differences of approximately 6 days for BL and about 12 days, on average, for V existed between the two areas. Based on the predicted changes of temperature and the accumulated degree days needed to reach each stage, future changes in phenology were modelled. The results indicate potentially greater changes in the warmer region (Penedès), particularly for the later growth stages, which is in agreement with greater temperature increases in Penedès. The advance of BB, BL, V and M by 2070 could be up to 5, 11, 17 and 24 days, respectively, under the RCP4.5 emission trajectory, and up to 50% higher in some stages under the RCP8.5 emission trajectory.

It is challenging to predict the changes in weed flora that may occur because of changes in global climate. Limited data are available on the effect of climate change and drought conditions on weed flora and their competitiveness in Southern Europe. Future predictions by scientists indicate reduced and untimely rainfall, along with increased temperatures in this region. Weeds possess a variety of developmental and physiological mechanisms, including senescing, increased leaf cuticular wax deposition, well-developed palisade parenchyma in the leaves, high root/shoot ratio, stomatal closure, peroxidase accumulation and symbiosis with endophytes that enable them to adapt to drought and high temperatures. Because of high adaptability of weeds to adverse environmental conditions, it can be assumed that under future warmer and drier environmental conditions, their growth will be favoured, while the competitiveness of vegetable crops against weeds will be decreased. It is important to highlight that the predicted decrease in overall rainfall levels throughout the year may lead to increased problems of herbicide residues (carryover effects) to following crops. The current paper provides an up-to-date overview of the adaptation mechanisms of weed species commonly found in Southern Europe, in order to expand the available knowledge regarding their response to drought and elevated temperatures. Emphasis is placed on revealing the effects of drought and increased temperatures on vegetable–weed competition and, most importantly, its effect on vegetable crop yield.

Forage maize (Zea mays L.) is often grown year after year on the same land on many intensive dairy farms in north-west Europe. This results in agronomical problems such as weed resistance and decline of soil quality, which may be solved by ley-arable farming. In the current study, forage maize was grown at different nitrogen (N) fertilization levels for 3 years on permanent arable land and on temporary arable land after ploughing out different types of grass–clover swards. Swards differed in management (grazing or cutting) and age (temporary or permanent). Maize yield and soil residual mineral N content were measured after the maize harvest. There was no effect on maize yield of the management of ploughed-out grass–clover swards but a clear effect of the age of grass–clover swards. The N fertilizer replacement value (NFRV) of all ploughed grass–clover swards was >170 kg N/ha in the first year after ploughing. In the third year after ploughing, NFRV of the permanent sward still exceeded 200 kg N/ha, whereas that of the temporary swards decreased to 30 kg N/ha on average. Soil residual nitrate (NO3−) remained below the local, legal threshold of 90 kg NO3− N/ha except for the ploughed-out permanent sward in the third year after ploughing (166 kg NO3− N/ha). The current study highlights the potential of forage maize – ley rotations in saving fertilizer N. This is beneficial both for the environment and for the profitability of dairy production in north-western Europe.

In the current work, humic acids (HAs) isolated from natural compost and unamended and amended soils in a medium-time field experiment were characterized to evaluate the effects of the amendment at rates of 124, 239 and 478 t/ha on their chemical, compositional and structural features. The impact of the application of compost on their properties was observed over 3 years. Humic acids were characterized using spectral methods and elemental analysis. Humic acid isolated from compost was predominantly aliphatic, with a larger content of nitrogen and low degree of aromaticity and humification. The typical maximum (280/345 nm) of HA obtained from compost lies within the T (tryptophan-like) region, which can be ascribed to proteinaceous organic materials. On the other hand, the HAs obtained from amended soil were mainly aromatic in character, with a larger distribution of oxygen-containing functional groups, molecular weight and greater aromaticity. Fluorophores of HAs obtained from amended soil lie within the C (humic-like) region with typical maxima centred in the range 430–450/500–540 nm, occurring usually in HAs isolated from soil, peat and lignite. According to ultra-violet/visible and Fourier-transform infrared (FTIR) spectroscopy, the larger oxygen contents of these HAs are associated with the substitution of aromatic rings by oxygen-containing functional groups such as carboxylic, hydroxyls and ethers. On the basis of FTIR spectra, it was shown that HAs obtained from amended soil 2 and 3 years after compost application were enriched by peptid, aromatic and polysaccharide compounds absorbing at 1540, 1515 and 1040/cm, respectively.

The current study evaluated the effect of sowing date (early, mid-August or timely, mid-September) on two winter wheat (Triticum aestivum L.) cultivars (Hereford, Mariboss) with different rates of nitrogen (N) (0–225 kg total N/ha) applied as animal manure (AM; cattle slurry) or mineral fertilizers (N: phosphorus: potassium; NPK). Overwinter plant N uptake and soil mineral N content were determined during 2014/15, while harvest yields (grain, straw, N content) were determined during 2014/15 and 2015/16. Overwinter uptake of N was 14 kg N/ha higher in early than in timely-sown wheat. Despite very different yield levels in 2015 and 2016 harvests, the advantage of early sowing on grain yields was similar (1.1 and 0.9 t/ha); straw yield benefits were greater in 2015 (1.7 t/ha more) than in 2016 (0.4 t/ha more). In 2015 and 2016, N offtake was 35 and 17 kg N/ha higher in early than in timely-sown wheat, respectively. The mineral N fertilizer value of cattle slurry averaged 50%. Early sowing increased the apparent N recovery (ANR) for wheat regardless of nutrient source. However, ANR was substantially higher for NPK (82% in 2015; 52% in 2016) than for AM (39% in 2015; 27% in 2016). Performance of the two cultivars did not differ consistently with respect to the effect of early sowing on crop yield, N concentration and offtake, or ANR. Within the north-west European climatic region, moving the sowing time of winter wheat from mid-September to mid-August provides a significant yield and N offtake benefit.

Agriculture in the Central Himalayan Region depends on the availability of suitable germplasm as well as natural conditions. Due to extreme weather conditions, food and nutrition security is a major issue for communities inhabiting these remote and inaccessible areas. Millets are common crops grown in these areas. Foxtail millet (Setaria italica (L.) P. Beauv) is an important crop and forms a considerable part of the diet in this region. The aim of the present study was to explore, collect, conserve and evaluate the untapped genetic diversity of foxtail millet at the molecular level and discover variability in their nutritional traits. A total of 30 accessions having unique traits of agronomic importance were collected and molecular profiling was performed. A total of 63 alleles were generated with an average of 2.52 alleles per locus and average expected heterozygosity of 0.37 ± 0.231. Significant genetic variability was revealed through the genetic differentiation (Fst) and gene flow (Nm) values. Structure-based analysis divided whole germplasm into three sub-groups. Rich variability was found in nutritional traits such as dietary fibre in husked grains, carbohydrate, protein, lysine and thiamine content. The collected germplasm may be useful for developing nutritionally rich and agronomically beneficial varieties of foxtail millet and also designing strategies for utilization of unexploited genetic diversity for food and nutrition security in this and other similar agro-ecological regions.

Optimization of production factors plays a central role in efficient milk production operations. Causal relationships between production parameters (health, fertility, feeding, performance and farm size) on the one hand and efficiency parameters on the other have been identified in several studies. In recent years, structural equation modelling (SEM) has not only gained importance in agriculture but also in milk production, providing the opportunity to investigate multilateral relationships. Additionally, SEM enables an estimation of parameters which are not themselves measurable, the so-called latent variables. The current study was based on the data of 943 branch settlements (including the years 2012 and 2013) of dairy farms keeping German Holstein cows in Schleswig-Holstein (Northern Germany) which provided a combination of the structural parameters, economic parameters and biological performance of the farms. An SEM using this combined data was applied to investigate the complexity of influences on efficiency parameters in milk production. Efficiency was sub-divided into and evaluated by two effect variables (economic efficiency and biological efficiency). Economic efficiency was defined as a conventional efficiency assessment criterion from full-cost accounting, whereas biological efficiency was used to evaluate the quality of herd management. Performance was identified as the key parameter for independent evaluation of efficiency by assessing biological (γ41 = 0.644) or economic efficiency (γ42 = 0.266). The SEM explained more than three times higher proportion of the variance in biological efficiency than in economic efficiency. The investigation proved the eligibility of partial least squares SEM for the evaluation of efficiency in milk production.

Prior to applying the cropping system model-CERES-Rice model to deep water rice (DWR), it is important to estimate the rice genetic coefficients (GC). The goal of the current study was to compare two methods for estimating GC using a GC calculator (GENCALC) and generalized likelihood uncertainty estimation (GLUE) for three flooded rice (FDR) varieties. Data from a field experiment on the effect of planting date and variety on FDR production was conducted in 2009 on a DWR area in Bang Taen His Majesty's Private Development Project, Prachin Buri, Thailand. The experimental design was split-plot with four main plots (planting dates) and three sub-plots (FDR varieties) with four replications. The simulated values for anthesis date, maturity date and grain weight using GENCALC produced normalized root mean square errors (RMSEn) of 3.97, 3.69 and 3.68, while using GLUE produced RMSEn of 3.67, 2.50 and 3.68, respectively. The simulated grain number and grain yield under GENCALC GC were not significantly different from the observed values but were higher than simulated values for GLUE GC. Simulated values of above-ground biomass for both GENCALC (11 727 kg/ha) and GLUE GC (11 544 kg/ha) were overestimated compared to observed values (8512 kg/ha). In addition, good agreements of leaf N values were found with D-index values of 0.94 and 0.96 using GENACALC and GLUE GC simulations, respectively. Therefore, the GENCALC and GLUE GC estimators of DSSAT can both be used for estimating GC of FDR in the DWR area in Thailand and similar agro-ecosystems in Southeast Asia.

Distributed models and a good knowledge of the catchment studied are required to assess mitigation measures for nitrogen (N) pollution. A set of alternative scenarios (change of crop management practices and different strategies of landscape management, especially different sizes and distribution of set-aside areas) were simulated with a fully distributed model in a small agricultural catchment. The results show that current practices are close to complying with current regulations, which results in a limited effect of the implementation of best crop management practices. The location of set-aside zones is more important than their size in decreasing nitrate fluxes in stream water. The most efficient location is the lower parts of hillslopes, combining the dilution effect due to the decrease of N input per unit of land and the interception of nitrate transferred by sub-surface flows. The main process responsible for the interception effect is probably uptake by grassland and retention in soils since the denitrification load tends to decrease proportionally to N input and, for the scenarios considered, is lower in the interception scenarios than in the corresponding dilution zones.

Intermediate wheatgrass (Thinopyrum intermedium; IWG) is a perennial cereal crop undergoing development for grain production; however, grain yield declines of >75% are often observed after year 2 of the perennial stand and may be linked to soil nutrient depletion. Intercropping IWG with a perennial legume such as alfalfa (Medicago sativa) could benefit nutrient cycling while increasing agroecological diversity. Intermediate wheatgrass was established at five environmentally diverse sites in Minnesota, USA in (1) bi-culture with alfalfa, (2) non-fertilized monoculture and (3) monoculture fertilized annually in the spring with 80 kg N/ha. At northern sites where alfalfa growth was favoured, IWG grain yields were reduced in year 2 by growing IWG in bi-culture with alfalfa, relative to the monoculture systems. Across all sites IWG grain yield decreased by 90% in the non-fertilized monoculture, 80% in the fertilized monoculture and 65% in the bi-culture from year 2 to 4 and plant macronutrient concentrations decreased by 25–70%. In year 4, IWG grain yield was similar or greater in the bi-culture than the fertilized monoculture at three of the five sites and alfalfa biomass was correlated positively with grain yield, harvest index and nutrient uptake in the year 4 bi-culture. Chemical-nitrogen fertilization increased grain yields in year 2 but did not mitigate the decline in yields as stands aged. Intermediate wheatgrass in the bi-culture had similar yields and nutrient uptake and lower yield declines than the chemically fertilized stand at sites where alfalfa growth was maintained throughout the life of the stand.

Although application of organic fertilizers has become a recommended way for developing sustainable agriculture, it is still unclear whether above-ground and below-ground crops have similar responses to chemical fertilizers (CF) and organic manure (OM) under the same farming conditions. The current study investigated soil quality and crop yield response to fertilization of a double-cropping system with rapeseed (above-ground) and sweet potato (below-ground) in an infertile red soil for 2 years (2014–16). Three fertilizer treatments were compared, including CF, OM and organic manure plus chemical fertilizer (MCF). Organic fertilizers (OM and MCF) increased the yield of both above- and below-ground crops and improved soil biochemical properties significantly. The current study also found that soil-chemical properties were the most important and direct factors in increasing crop yields. Also, crop yield was affected indirectly by soil-biological properties, because no significant effects of soil-biological activities on yield were detected after controlling the positive effects of soil-chemical properties. Since organic fertilizers could not only increase crop yield, but also improve soil nutrients and microbial activities efficiently and continuously, OM application is a reliable agricultural practice for both above- and below-ground crops in the red soils of China.

Nitrogen (N) application and irrigation to winter wheat may decrease leaf temperature and enhance photosynthesis: as a result, more photosynthates will be allocated to the grains, resulting in higher grain yields. To investigate this hypothesis, a 2-year field study was conducted with three levels of N fertilizer application (no fertilizer, N0; 240 kg N/ha, N1; 360 kg N/ha, N2) and two different water regimes (rainfed with no irrigation, R; irrigation at the over-wintering, stem elongation and grain filling stages, W). The results show that both N application and supplemental irrigation significantly increased grain yield with increases in both grain number/m2 and the 1000-grain weight, viz., WN2>WN1>WN0>RN2>RN1>RN0. In addition, application of N under both water regimes significantly increased flag leaf area, above-ground biomass and single stem productivity and decreased leaf temperature, which led to an increase in net photosynthesis rates and ribulose bisphosphate (RuBP) carboxylase activity. Moreover, analysis of the chlorophyll α fluorescence transient showed that N fertilizer application and supplemental irrigation significantly increased electron donor and acceptor performance of the photosystem II reaction centre.

Chitooligosaccharides (COS) are multi-functional foods and nutrients and environmentally friendly biological abiotic-resistance inducing agents for plants. In the current study, the effects and possible mechanisms of COS on improving the cold resistance of rice (II YOU 1259) seedlings were investigated. Compared with the control, a COS pre-soaking treatment enhanced photosynthesis, reduced oxidation damage and led to accumulation of more osmotic regulation substances under chilling treatment. In addition, a novel Deg/HtrA family serine endopeptidase (DegQ) gene, related to COS enhanced rice cold resistance, was identified. Quantitative real-time polymerase chain reaction (qRT-PCR) analysis revealed that transcription of DegQ and psbA (D1 protein encoding gene) were up-regulated in a time-dependent manner by COS treatment under cold stress. With increasing expression of the D1 protein, chlorophyll b content was enhanced correspondingly. The current results suggest that COS could enhance cold stress tolerance of rice by repairing the photodamaged photosystem II, altering osmotic regulation and reducing oxidation damage.

In the past 20 years, extreme weather events (atypical variations of temperature and precipitation in space and time) have increased in Bosnia and Herzegovina, the consequences being significant material damage and decreased crop yields. The aims of the current paper were to investigate the impact of climate change on yield, irrigation requirements and water productivity of maize grown in one of the most important agricultural regions of the country. It used the results of projections of the EBU-POM regional climate model (Eta Belgrade University – Princeton Ocean Model) for the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) Special Report on Emissions Scenarios (SRES) A1B, A2 and A1B > carbon dioxide (CO2), A2 > CO2 for the 2020s (2010–2039), the 2050s (2040–2069) and the 2080s (2070–2099), and it compared them with the reference period (1961–1990) using measured and modelled data. AquaCrop was calibrated for the study area using data from experimental studies. The model was applied in simulations of future cultivation scenarios considering different irrigation regimes and variations in precipitation, temperature, CO2 concentration and sowing date. The results of simulations indicate that in the 2020s, there will be no significant changes in irrigation needs and yield due to the earlier sowing date and overall shifting of the growing season early in spring. A slightly larger negative impact of climate change will occur by the 2050s and a larger one by the 2080s due to a reduction in precipitation in the summer months. Compared with the reference period, in the 2080s, irrigation requirements are expected to increase by almost 100% (from 100 to 200 mm) and to provide up to 30% greater yield. In the future, water productivity of maize will remain high and will be even greater than current levels for both rainfed and irrigated cultivation due to anticipation and shortening of the growing season, reduction in crop evapotranspiration and increase in CO2 concentration. Due to an increase in precipitation in early spring and its reduction in the May–June period, the blue-to-green water ratio will increase in the future with positive environmental connotations. The productive use of blue water will also increase.