The authors have not supplied their declaration of competing interest.

Theory of mind (ToM) is the ability to predict behaviors of others in terms of their underlying mental states. It is carried out in order to make sense of and predict behavior. Impairments in ToM have been found in many psychiatric/neurological disorders including schizophrenia and autism spectrum disorders. Previous research has indicated sex difference in ToM development. Previous research has also found some differences in the neural basis of ToM.

An objective/aim of the present study was to examine possible sex differences in the neural mechanism associated with ToM development. Another objective was to examine the neural basis of ToM that is shared by both sexes throughout development.

Thirty-two adults (16 women) and 24 children (12 girls) were assessed with fMRI while performing a false belief (FB) task.

During the ToM relative to non-ToM condition, adults and children of both sexes showed increased activity in the medial prefrontal cortex (mPFC) and the temporo-parietal junction (TPJ). Both boys and girls recruited more brain regions than adults. Moreover, children employed structures involved in the human mirror neuron system (hMNS) more than adults. More specifically, boys recruited the inferior frontal gyrus (IFG) more than men, while girls recruited the precentral gyrus more than women.

These results suggest that boys/men and girls/women employ different brain regions for ToM during development.

The authors have not supplied their declaration of competing interest.

Humans learn how to behave both through rules and instructions (explicit learning) as well as through environmental experiences (implicit learning). It has been shown that instructions can powerfully control people's choices, often leading to a confirmation bias.

To explore confirmation bias with respect to cognitive functioning in healthy adult participants.

We recruited 25 healthy adult control subjects (9 males, 16 females, age 31.40 ± 6.08 years). Participants completed Repeatable Battery of Neuropsychological Status (RBANSS) as well as Instructed Version of Probabilistic Selection Task (IPST) (Doll et al., 2009).

Based on the performance on IPST into two groups: a group with higher and lower susceptibility to confirmation bias. We found no difference between these groups with respect to any of the cognitive domains measured with RBANSS (immediate memory, visuospatial abilities, language, attention and delayed memory) (U Mann-Whitney test, P > 0.05).

In healthy adults, susceptibility to confirmation bias is independent of cognitive functioning (immediate and delayed memory, visuospatial abilities, language and attention).

The authors have not supplied their declaration of competing interest.

HIV-related damage of the central nervous system is manifested in varying severity of neurocognitive disturbances. Research on measures of executive functioning has confirmed that HIV infection is associated with progressive difficulties in these abilities. Moreover, several studies in recent years have shown that an impaired cognitive function confers a higher risk of poor adherence to antiretroviral therapy.

The aim of this study is to analyze the relationship between executive functions and ART compliance.

We designed a cross-sectional case-control survey. Cases were defined as HIV-infected patients who missing at least 10% intakes in the last year (reported by hospital pharmacy) and self-reported non-adherence by Simplified Medication Adherence Questionnaire (SMAQ). Controls were defined as HIV-infected patients who accomplishing at least last 95% intakes in the last year (reported by hospital pharmacy), and self-reported adherence by SMAQ. Patients with adherences between 90–95% were not included. Executive functions were evaluated with Wisconsin Sorting Card Test. Linear regression was employed as statistical analysis. Results were adjusted for follow-up years. Wisconsin score was already adjusted for gender, age and education level when data were corrected.

Our sample was compound by 63 patients: 37 controls and 26 cases. A statistical signification (P < 0.05) was found for total correct, total errors, perseverative responses, perseverative errors, conceptual level responses and trials to complete first category score between adherence and non-adherence treatment patients.

In our sample worse executive function score, measured by Wisconsin Card Sorting Test, was linked to poor adherence to antiretroviral treatment in HIV patients.

The authors have not supplied their declaration of competing interest.

Research in psycholinguistics focusing on cognitive processing in bilinguals and the role played by working memory about cognitive processing indicated that Working Memory (WM) was instrumental in cognitive processing in bilinguals, but that its role was different and generally more complex than it was in monolinguals. However, the specific manner in which the use of WM differed between monolinguals and bilinguals was not always clear.

This research explored the verbal and visual-spatial WM performance in an Arabic monolingual group and a bilingual English/Arabic group.

The participants were 396 Kuwaiti (198 monolingual aged 7.99 ± 1.97 years and 198 bilingual aged 8.03 ± 1.92) with no significant age differences (t = 0.23, P > 0.05). The two groups were compared on how they performed in the Automated Working Memory Assessment (AWMA), to measure a verbal and visual-spatial WM tasks. The tasks were Listening Recall, Counting Recall, Mr. X, Backward Digit Recall, Odd-one-out and Spatial Span. All tasks were internally consistent (Alpha = 0.91, 0.93, 0.87, 0.88, 0.87, and 0.91 respectively). The data was analyzed using Independent Sample t Test.

The findings showed that there was significant group difference as the monolingual Arabic group (L1) performed better than bilingual English/Arabic group (L2) on both of verbal WM (t = 3.25, P < 0.002) and visuospatial WM (t = 3.04, P < 0.002).

The monolingual children obtained higher scores on both verbal and visuospatial WM. These findings were explained in terms of the complexity of the Arabic language and cultural context in which the second language is being practiced. This warrants further investigation.

The authors have not supplied their declaration of competing interest.

Today cognitive impairment study epilepsy in children and in people taking anticonvulsants. Unfortunately, we do not know enough about neuropsychological features of mild cognitive impairment in epilepsy, clinical and pathogenetic patterns of their development, role in the development of social exclusion.

To study the mild cognitive impairment and their relationship with clinical features of epileptic disease forms, socio-psychological characteristics of patients.

Clinical-psychopathological, psychodiagnostic.

We first used Addenbrooke's cognitive examination (ACE-R) in patients with epilepsy to quantify cognitive disorders in this group. The specified scale detects violations of cognitive function to mild dementia and allows us to differentiate the prevalence of certain disorders of mental processes. We revealed that the reducing the effectiveness of stress overcoming behavior through cognitive disorders in thinking and attention are one of the pathognomonic psychogenic mechanisms of affective disorders in patients with epilepsy. The complex of individual therapeutic measures for patients with epilepsy and MCI is based on the study features of cognitive disorders results. Psychotherapy and psychological correction measures for patients with epilepsy and MCI have to improve the social functioning and quality of life. We also created recommendations for the prevention of cognitive disorders in patients with epilepsy.

The features of cognitive disorders in patients with epilepsy, depending on the clinical form of epilepsy (symptomatic, idiopathic, cryptogenic). It should be used as additional differential diagnostic criteria forms of epilepsy (symptomatic, idiopathic, cryptogenic).

The authors have not supplied their declaration of competing interest.

The method of “rehabilitation training”, developed in the Soviet psychology, based on the idea that the human HMF are realized in complex functional systems, developed during cultural- and ontogenesis.

To show the importance of the development of approaches to the rehabilitation of HMF in Luria's neuropsychology.

The disturbances in brain activity leads to the neuropsychological syndrome appearance that could be called self-developing system. According to the systemic principles, each neuropsychological syndrome HMF disorders in accordance with brain injury localisation has the common “cause” – destroyed neuropsychological factor. In the case of patients with dementia several neuropsychological factors are usually included. So the rehabilitation processes should be aimed at the maximum preserved and strengthened stereotypes and behavior strategies in past experiences.

The binary syndrome structure (set of symptoms of destroyed neuropsychological HMF and abnormal neuropsychological factor itself) allows us to define two strategies of neuropsychological rehabilitation programs. The first strategy involves choice as a “target” of the most destroyed mental function. The second strategy could be directed to the rehabilitation of abnormal neuropsychological factor that should be accompanied by the rehabilitation of several systemic interrelated mental functions. Recourse to past knowledge, interests and emotionally important topics is assisting and supporting the rehabilitation processes.

Use of both strategies ensures targeted restoration of cognitive functions within Vygotsky-Luria approach.

The authors have not supplied their declaration of competing interest.

Comprehensive language testing shows a strong relationship between overall severity of cognitive decline and language deficit. Moreover, the language performance can be affected also by neuropsychiatric symptoms of dementia.

To detect the language deficits in sentence comprehension in patients with MCI and dementia and to determine the relationship between them, the severity and the structure of cognitive impairment and independently between them and BPSD.

In the sample of 46 cognitively declined patients (MCI and dementia, majority of them with Alzheimer's disease), we evaluated the severity and the structure of cognitive impairment by means of MoCA instrument, language deficits by our own sentence comprehension test and BPSD by means of NPI-Q.

The average performance in the sentence comprehension test was about 90% of normal in the group of MCI patients, about 75% in mild, about 60% in moderate and only about 20% in the group of severe dementias. According to individual cognitive domains, their impact on language performance was different. We found a strong correlation between the overall severity of BPSD and the language performance, too.

At earlier stages of cognitive disorders/dementias, the language specific test should be used to discover comprehension deficits, because at the simple level of word the language skills are preserved. BPSD are also associated with language deficits even when the severity of dementia is controlled for. Identification of these communication disturbances can help to detect cognitive decline earlier and to start preserving treatment in time.

The authors have not supplied their declaration of competing interest.

The majority of HIV infected patients exhibit central nervous system disorders. The most severe is dementia, which is the most common cause of non-traumatic dementia in young patients. It may affect the progression of the disease, compromising the adherence of treatment and increasing the mortality rate.

Report of a clinical case of dementia due to HIV infection in a 33-year-old male patient, admitted in the Acute Inpatient Unit of the Psychiatry and Mental Health Department in Baixo Vouga Hospital Centre.

The results were gathered based on the clinical history of the patient, his objective exam, diagnostic exams and family information and from medical research included on PubMed and Google Scholar platforms.

The patient presented evident cognitive deterioration with memory loss, attention and concentration deficits, apathy, indifference, psychomotor retardation and behavioral changes in the past few weeks, with a significant impact in his life. The patient did supplementary diagnostic tests, which showed progressive multifocal leukoencephalopathy and global and diffuse cortical atrophy involving the fronto-temporal regions and a neuropsychological assessment whose results confirmed a moderate cognitive deficit. During the hospitalization there was a positive stabilization of behavior with antiretroviral therapy and antipsychotics.

The lack of knowledge about the factors that predispose dementia in HIV patients is a relevant limitation nowadays. The clinical effectiveness of antiretroviral therapy has improved in recent years with a reduction in the prevalence of HIV dementia, which now is estimated at 10%.

The authors have not supplied their declaration of competing interest.

Alexithymia is a multifactorial personality trait observed in several mental disorders, especially those with poor social functioning. Although it has been proposed that difficulties in interpersonal interactions in highly alexithymic individuals may stem from their reduced ability to express and recognize facial expressions, this still remains controversial.

In everyday life, faces displaying emotions are dynamic, although most studies have relied on static stimuli. The aim of this study was to investigate whether individuals with high levels of alexithymia differed from a control group in the categorization of emotional faces presented in a dynamic way. Given the highly dynamic nature of facial displays in real life, we used morphed videos depicting faces varying 1% from neutral to angry, disgust or happy faces, with a video presentation of 35 seconds.

Sixty participants (27 males and 33 females) were divided into high (HA) and low levels of alexithymia (LA) by using the Toronto Alexithymia Scale (TAS-20). Participants were instructed to watch the face change from neutral to an emotion and to press a keyboard as soon as they could categorize an emotion expressed in the face.

The results revealed an interaction between alexithymia and emotion showing that HA, compared to LA, were more inaccurate at categorizing angry faces.

The authors have not supplied their declaration of competing interest.

The authors have not supplied their declaration of competing interest.

Huntington's disease (HD) is characterized by executive dysfunctions like problems with planning, accuracy, inhibition and impulsivity. During the course of the disease executive function worsens with ongoing pathological changes in the basal ganglia. However, it is not clear whether cognitive dysfunction develops gradually or not during the course of the disease.

We assessed the development of executive dysfunction in 23 patients with early HD and 29 patients with late HD on the Tower of London (ToL) for the number of solved problems, planning time and number of breaks.

HD patients showed a linear decrease of accuracy (as assessed by number of solved problems) during the course of the disease. Controls scored significantly higher than early stage HD patients and early stage HD patients scored significantly higher than late stage HD patients. In planning time and number of breaks a non-linear decrease was found.

Executive dysfunctions in HD are not alone connected to degenerative changes in the striatum as they do not develop gradually and linear during the course of the disease. Obviously, executive function could not be seen as a single component, but as a combination of different abilities, which show a non-linear and non-parallel decline.

The authors have not supplied their declaration of competing interest.

The prevalence of vitamin B12 and folate deficiency is significant in the psychiatric population. These deficiencies may be associated with varied neuropsychiatric signs and symptoms, caused by different pathophysiological mechanisms.

Characterize the main neuropsychiatric signs and symptoms associated with vitamin B12 and folate deficiencies. Evaluate the prevalence of these vitamins deficiencies in an acute inpatient psychiatric department, dedicated to Affective Disorders.

To review the clinical significance of vitamin B12 and folate deficiencies in psychiatric disorders and reflect on the importance of routine screening in mental health care.

Observational, retrospective and descriptive study, with analysis of clinical and blood tests data concerning the total number of inpatient episodes in 2015. Non-systematic review of the scientific literature.

A small case series of the patients that had folate or B12 deficiency detected is presented. The prevalence of vitamin B12 and folate deficiencies found in our study is in accordance with the data found in the literature.

Vitamin B12 and folate deficiencies should be considered in the approach to the psychiatric patient as its neuropsychiatric manifestations are varied, can be severe, and may constitute a potentially treatable cause of mental disorder. Our data shows that folate and B12 deficiencies are significant in inpatients and we believe it justifies routine screening at admission.

The authors have not supplied their declaration of competing interest.

The impairment of facial emotion recognition (FER) among patients with schizophrenia (SCZ) is a significant feature of the illness. Childhood trauma (CT) is reported with a high prevalence in SCZ and is considered one of its risk factors.

To investigate the relationship between FER and CT in SCZ.

Fifty-eight outpatients with stable SCZ completed the Childhood Trauma Questionnaire retrospectively assessing five types of childhood trauma (emotional, physical and sexual abuse, and emotional and physical neglect). They also completed a newly developed and validated FER task constructed from photographs of the face of a famous Tunisian actress and evaluating the ability to correctly identify Ekman's six basic facial emotions (happiness, sadness, anger, disgust, fear and surprise).

Patients with higher scores of CT performed significantly worse in FER task. Our results suggest that the presence of sexual abuse is specifically correlated to a poor identification of anger (P = 0.02) and disgust (P = 0.03) while the presence of emotional abuse and physical neglect are correlated to a poor identification of happiness and sadness.

CT may represent one of the causes of the FER deficits in schizophrenia. Further studies are necessary to confirm the link between specific kinds of childhood trauma and deficits in the recognition of discrete emotions.

The authors have not supplied their declaration of competing interest.

Neurocognition and social cognition are the core deficits influencing social outcomes in patients with schizophrenia. These deficits are present in prodromal phase and throughout the illness, in first-degree relatives and are considered in the framework of neurodevelopmental or neurodegenerative models.

Four clinical cases with patients reflecting different cognitive profiles were chosen to demonstrate heterogeneity of cognitive biases and their influence on the social function en vivo. The patients have undergone a number of neurocognitive and social cognitive measures.

In these four patients, we would like to highlight the dissociation of neurocognitive deficits, clinical manifestations and social functioning. Social cognitive measures revealed heterogeneity of biases in different domains. As a result of our observation, we can hypothesize that better social functioning was achieved by patients with better abilities to discriminate negative emotions and states of mind in others.

Despite certain limitations of case-report studies, it is hard not to point out heterogeneity and incoherence of social and neurocognition. We assume that intact domains of Processing of Emotions and Theory of Mind predispose to better social functioning, while it's hard to trace this connection to neurocognition. This result needs to be challenged on large samples in future research, concerning emotionality in Theory of Mind and capacity for empathy and its’ role in social functioning.

The authors have not supplied their declaration of competing interest.

The literature on the neurobiology of emotional processing in panic disorder (PD) remains inconsistent. Clinical heterogeneity could be causing this.

To investigate differences in brain activity between PD and healthy controls using the emotional faces fMRI paradigm.

To elucidate neurobiological mechanisms underlying emotional processing in PD and previously identified subtypes (Pattyn et al., 2015).

The main analysis compared the neural processing of different emotional facial expressions from a large group of PD patients (n = 73) versus healthy controls (n = 58) originating from the Netherlands Study of Depression and Anxiety (NESDA). A second analysis divided the PD group into the three previously identified subgroups: a cognitive-autonomic (n = 22), an autonomic (n = 16) and an aspecific subgroup (n = 35). The fusiform gyrus, the anterior cingulate cortex and the insula were used in a ROI approach.

Comparing PD patients with healthy controls, a decreased activity on angry faces was observed in the left fusiform gyrus. The subgroup analysis showed more activity in the anterior cingulate cortex on neutral faces in the cognitive-autonomic subgroup versus the autonomic subgroup and a decreased activity in the left fusiform gyrus on angry faces compared to the aspecific subgroup. Less activity was observed in the right insula on neutral faces in the autonomic subgroup versus the aspecific subgroup.

Reduced activity in the left fusiform gyrus was differentiating panic disorder patients from healthy controls. In accordance with clinical subtyping, between-subtype differences are an indication that a phenomenological approach could provide more insight in underlying neurobiological mechanisms in emotional processing in PD.

The authors have not supplied their declaration of competing interest.

Several studies have shown that evolutionary relevant fear stimuli hold a privileged access to the fear module, an independent behavioral, psychophysiological and neural system that is automatically and selectively activated, and is relatively encapsulated from more advanced human cognition. However, to the best of our knowledge no study has yet directly assessed whether such stimuli are granted a facilitated access to visual awareness, compared to stimuli without such evolutionary relevance.

In the present study we used an interocular suppression technique, the Continuous Flash Suppression, known to reduce the activity along the geniculostriate pathway and to strongly suppress processing in the visual cortex.

Our goal was to investigate whether ecologically relevant fear stimuli (snakes and spiders) overcame suppression and accessed awareness to a larger extent than non-evolutionary relevant animal stimuli (birds).

Thirty university students volunteered to participate. Participants were asked to identify the screen quadrant in which the stimulus was presented in order to ensure that there was indeed a conscious processing.

The results confirmed our hypothesis by showing an advantage of fear stimuli (snakes and spiders) over the control stimulus (birds) in emerging from suppression into awareness, which was evidenced by significantly shorter response times.

Our findings support the notion that evolutionary relevant stimuli hold a privileged access into awareness, most likely involving a direct brainstem-thalamic route to the amygdala. Importantly, they contribute to elucidate the functions and mechanisms of the fear system and may have important implications for understanding emotional disorders, since many of these involve the fear system.

The authors have not supplied their declaration of competing interest.

Cannabis is one of the most prevalent drugs used worldwide. However, the neural consequences of cannabis remain poorly understood. There is a need for a rapid improvement of the scientific knowledge on the cerebral impact of cannabis use. Since the retina is an easy-to-access part of the central nervous system, it can reflect the neurochemistry of the brain.

Considering the anatomical and functional distribution of the cannabinoid system in the retinal ganglion cells, the objective of this study was to assess whether the regular use of cannabis could affect the ganglion cells functioning.

Assessment of the ganglion cells function in regular cannabis users compared to healthy controls.

Recordings of pattern electroretinogram (PERG) were performed in regular cannabis users and healthy controls using standard of the International Society for Clinical Electrophysiology of Vision (ISCEV). The amplitude and implicit time of the PERG N95 were assessed.

The N95 implicit time of PERG was significantly decreased in regular cannabis users compared to healthy controls.

We found alterations in the ganglion cells function in regular cannabis users, as showed by the increase in N95 implicit time. The ganglion cells represent the ultimate retinal relay before the visual information is relayed to the brain and, according to these results, we suppose that the signal elicited by these cells and transferred through the visual pathways is altered in cannabis users. A direct action of exogenous cannabinoids in the retinal glutamatergic transmission is discussed.

The authors have not supplied their declaration of competing interest.

Cognitive dysfunction in patients with systemic lupus erythematosus affects 10–36% of them.

To determine a profile of selected cognitive functions in systemic lupus erythematosus.

To investigate and characterize selected cognitive parameters in patients with systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE) using a standardized, comparable and reproducible computer-based method.

The study included 25 patients with SLE. For neuropsychological assessment, the Cambridge Neuropsychological Test Automated Battery was used. Following parameters were investigated: mean latency and mean error in motor screening (MOTML, MOTME), big little circle (BLC), paired associated learning (PAL), problems solved in minimum moves in stockings of Cambridge (SOC PSMM) and graded naming test (GNT). Results were referred automatically to determined ranges of norms matched according to age and gender.

In patients with SLE results displayed by median and upper and lower quartiles were as follows: MOTML = 1.1 (0.9–1.34), MOTME = 0.41 (0.31–0.52), BLC = 0.16 (0.16–0.18), PAL = −0.43 (−1.28; −0.18), SOCPSMM = −0.62 (−1.19–0.04), and GNT = −0.8 (−1.6; −0.32).

MOTML correlated negatively with MOTME (r = −0.51), MOTME correlated with SOCPSMM (r = 0.41), and PAL correlated with GNT (r = 0.48) (P < 0.05).

In our study, predominant abnormalities were those related to lexical and semantic memory, revealed by the GNT, spatial planning and spatial working memory, assessed by the SOC, together with visual memory and new learning, assessed with the PAL.

The authors have not supplied their declaration of competing interest.

Impairment in cognitive performance is an important characteristic in many psychiatric illnesses, such as Bipolar Disorder and Major Depressive Disorder. Initially, cognitive dysfunctions were considered to be present only in acute depressive episodes and to improve after symptoms recovered. Reports have described persistent cognitive deficits even after significant improvement of depressive symptoms.

We wanted to understand the dimension of cognitive impairment in unipolar and bipolar depression and also to underline the differences between cognitive profiles of patients diagnosed within the two mentioned disorders.

This review examined recent literature about unipolar and bipolar depression.

Both depressed patients presented cognitive deficits in several cognitive domains. Different aspects of attention were altered in both patients but impairment in shifting attention appeared specific to unipolar disorder while impaired sustained attention was particular for bipolar disorder. Both types of patients showed memory deficits that were associated with poor global functioning. Two recent studies described that bipolar depressed subjects were more impaired across all cognitive domains than unipolar depressed subjects on tests assessing verbal memory, verbal fluency, attention and executive functions. The most consistently deficits were displayed on measures of executive functioning – such as tasks requiring problem solving, planning, decision making – suggesting that this cognitive domain is a trait-marker for depression.

Cognitive deficits are present in both disorders during a depressive episode but they display slightly different patterns of impairment.

The authors have not supplied their declaration of competing interest.