Mangroves play an important role in estuarine ecological systems as well as in shoreline protection. Such large areas of mangroves have been lost by dredging, land-filling, and other means, that it has become important to develop techniques for restoring or replacing them. Such techniques are needed both for the sake of restoring the mangroves as a valuable shoreline habitat and to estimate their monetary value, which must at least equal the restoration cost.

It is accordingly suggested that future destruction of mangroves be permitted only if they are subsequently replaced at the same site or at some appropriately developed alternative site.

Mangroves have been planted at several sites in Florida, and planting success has been evaluated. Mangroves of several sizes have been planted at a variety of sites that differed in shoreline energy, tidal depth, root-parasite prevalence, substrate type, salinity, and public access. Counts and measurements made after periods of up to 4 years indicated that shoreline energy, tidal depth, and vandalism, were the most important factors limiting mangrove establishment and survival.

Planting costs were estimated from collecting and planting by research assistants and from estimates of the price of larger (3-years-old) nursery-grown trees. Planting cost estimates were $462/acre ($1,140/ha) for unrooted Red Mangrove propagules spaced 3 feet (91 cm) apart, $1,017/acre ($2,500/ha) for established Red, Black, or White, Mangrove seedlings spaced 3 feet (91cm) apart; and $87,500/acre ($216,130/ha) for 3-years-old trees of Red, Black, or White, Mangroves spaced 4 feet (123 cm) apart.

The operation and longevity of hydropower dams are often negatively impacted by sedimentation. Forest conservation can reduce soil erosion, and therefore efforts to maintain upstream forest cover within a watershed contribute to the economic life span of a hydropower facility. The cost of forest conservation can be viewed as an investment in hydropower and be financed via a payment for ecosystem services (PES) scheme. A novel modelling framework is used to estimate payments for forest conservation consisting of: (1) land-use change projection; (2) watershed erosion modelling; (3) reservoir sedimentation estimation; (4) power generation loss calculation; and (5) PES scheme design. The framework was applied to a proposed dam in Cambodia (Pursat 1). The estimated net present value of forest conservation was US$ 4.7 million when using average annual climate values over 100 years, or US$ 6.4 million when considering droughts every eight years. This can be remunerated with annual payments of US$ 4.26 ha−1 or US$ 5.78 ha−1, respectively, covering forest protection costs estimated at US$ 0.9 ha−1 yr−1. The application of this type of PES represents a rational option that allows for conservation and development of hydropower watersheds susceptible to erosion and sedimentation.

The Integrated Coastal Zone Management protocol of the Barcelona Convention sets governance objectives for countries bordering the Mediterranean Sea. This protocol emphasizes collaborative approaches to acknowledge the role of local people in coastal management. Evaluating the quality of governance processes is critical if coastal zone values are to be effectively managed in times of global climate change. This study examined the structure and attributes of collaborative governance networks in two Mediterranean deltas, the Camargue (France) and Gediz Delta (Turkey). A deliberative social catchment sampling was used to target actors with physical, cultural, social or economic ties. Forty-five different organizations/professions were interviewed using a standardized questionnaire to identify the frequency and quality of contacts, information flows, and subject matter relevant to natural resource management. There were higher levels of degree centrality and reciprocal ties in the Camargue, while the Gediz Delta had a greater homogeneity of actors, with one centralized influential actor. Civil society played a greater role in the Camargue network, and government organizations were more central in the Gediz Delta. The differences between the two sites call into question the use of the same integrated management strategies and suggest the need to acknowledge the importance of existing governance models and relationships within local contexts.

Conserving natural vegetation cover is of critical importance for maintaining the ecological integrity and hydrological properties of large river basins (more than 100 000 km2). Recent estimates indicate that more than 700 000 km2 of Brazilian Amazon have already been deforested, and to reduce further losses and preserve the important natural and cultural resources in this region, large conservation areas have been created by the Brazilian government. The present study analysed land cover and land use change in the major watersheds of the Brazilian Amazon, in order to evaluate the current balance between deforestation and conservation of natural areas in the region. The results show that watersheds draining the southern part of the basin have suffered the highest deforestation rates, with the largest losses (8.3–20% of total basin area) occurring in the Madeira, Tapajós, Xingu, Araguaia and Tocantins river basins. Most large watersheds already have significant deforestation in their headwaters, which can affect hydrological functions and ecological sustainability. The greatest allocation of land for conservation was encountered in the Trombetas, Xingu and Negro watersheds, where conservation areas occupied 92.5, 56.9 and 50.6% of the total basin, respectively. While extensive areas of the Amazon biome have been deforested, on the scale of large watersheds there is a positive balance between conservation areas and deforestation, and on average the area delimited by conservation areas is more than three times larger than the deforested areas. An analysis by subwatersheds, however, indicates that certain regions have achieved more critical levels of deforestation, in some situations affecting more than 80% of the subwatersheds.

The destruction of forest ecosystems appears economically rational because many of the values of intact ecosystems are not recognized in land-use decisions. Many authors have suggested that the conservation of intact ecosystems requires that markets be extended to increase economic benefits derived from the standing forest to the point where they out-compete alternative, destructive land-uses. Three such strategies for market-oriented forest conservation are natural forest management for high-value timber, the collection of non-timber forest products, and biodiversity prospecting. In each case the proposed use of the ecosystem is likely to prove socially and economically unsustainable, or to generate significant alterations in ecosystem structure which endanger its diversity, or both. The success of market-oriented conservation requires that sustainable extraction of useful organisms over the long term yields more profit than destructive activities. The market-oriented conservation strategies examined, however, appear to yield too little profit to out-perform alternatives such as agricultural production or the replacement of forests by pastures or plantations. In each case, key factors limit profits. The slow growth rates of natural forests combined with discounting hinders natural forest management. In the case of non-timber forest products, the typically low density of resources in tropical forests creates disincentives for sustainable commercial production. The profitability of biodiversity prospecting is undermined by the low probability of discovering species with medicinal properties and developing countries' inability to capture the information value of the genetic content of species. Furthermore, each of the three strategies also has potentially negative ecological impacts. In the drive to increase profits, each is likely to degrade ecosystems through over-exploitation of the resource, and prompt simplification of the ecosystem through forest management designed to increase the density of profitable species. Ultimately, such activities are likely to lead to the loss of biodiversity.

Several conditions must be met for market-oriented conservation to be effective. Scientific understanding of forest ecosystems, and the ecological knowledge of both users and regulators must be sufficiently advanced to allow appropriate management regimes to be designed to assure maintenance of the forest ecosystem despite alterations caused by resource harvesting. The natural reproduction rate of the harvested resource must also be sufficiently rapid to justify leaving most of the resource undisturbed to guarantee its reproduction. Furthermore, the resource must be more cheaply and reliably produced in a natural forest than in a plantation, than by a synthetic substitute, or replacement through domestication. Finally, even where ecological and economic conditions support market-oriented conservation, those making land-use decisions must be in a position to benefit from the sustainable harvest of forest resources. If they are unable to enforce exclusive rights to the forests, the conservation effect of market-oriented strategies is likely to prove elusive.

Nevertheless, strategies for market-oriented forest conservation are a vital component of efforts to conserve biodiversity, and they must be improved to harness their full conservation potential. Resource management regulations, strong enforcement, and stable and secure property rights are essential preconditions. In addition, land-use planning should identify ecosystems with lower biological diversity where marketable products are concentrated at economic densities. Areas of high biological diversity will require non-market mechanisms to ensure their protection. In this context, there is no substitute for fully protected areas, and their expansion is vital.

Many high altitude regions of the world are still occupied by traditional communities of people, whose livelihood is closely related to a narrow base of locally available natural resources. A survey was conducted in 1991–94 of two villages inhabited by Bhotiya tribal people in Dharchula block of Uttar Pradesh, India. Medicinal herbs (14 abundant species, with Partitella ramitchadalis accounting for >50% by weight) constitute 12–13% of total income to the villages. The harvest is conducted by children during August to October, around summer settlements (up to 4100 m altitude) to which the villagers annually migrate. Fifteen cooperatives with a 1992 membership of 7009 herb collectors and salespeople exist in the Dharchula block, and marketing is through two specialist government agencies. Conservation measures, including protected areas and banning of direct trade with purchasing companies, have not generally been successful; pressure on the plant populations has increased and there is evidence for decline in the resource. Cultivation appears to represent a viable option for the resource, and thus for the income of the traditional peoples who still depend on it.

The ecological network of Natura 2000, an European Union (EU) initiative to halt biodiversity loss across Europe, has dominated biodiversity governance in the new EU member states in recent years, as implementation was a condition of accession. Non-governmental organizations (NGOs) have generally assisted Natura 2000 implementation. In two Central and Eastern European countries (Poland and Hungary), NGOs became involved in different ways; this paper seeks to analyse and explain these national differences by researching the theoretical background of policy networks and advocacy coalitions in both countries. In Hungary, NGOs worked closely with governmental authorities and contributed significantly to site selection. In Poland, NGOs initially opposed government plans, but later moved toward close cooperation with public institutions; this resulted in a significant expansion in the area and number of designated Natura 2000 sites. In both countries, NGO influence increased during the Natura 2000 process owing to the establishment of multi-level policy networks with the European Commission and public institutions, based on resource dependencies and shared beliefs. In post-socialist countries, the progression from government-monopolized biodiversity conservation implies a growing importance and contribution of NGOs, and their ability to use resources appropriately in the new governance contexts.

Managing for multiple ecosystem services is a growing issue for forest managers. As trade-offs arise between conflicting management objectives, stakeholders must be informed of the possible outcomes of alternative choices in order to facilitate decision-making. We modelled stand dynamics under single-management and functional zoning multiple-management (TRIAD; i.e. three-zone) scenarios in different forest types typical of eastern North America with the Forest Vegetation Simulator (FVS). Timber production, carbon stocking and habitat quality ecosystem services were calculated with simulation outputs. Habitat quality was measured using a habitat suitability index that integrated stand structural indicators. A multi-criteria decision analysis (MCDA) was performed in order to rank scenarios. We show that the most intensive management yielded greater timber volumes but resulted in the weakest carbon and habitat quality scores. The TRIAD scenarios in sugar maple–beech stands offered the best compromise in services compared to single management. In shade-intolerant deciduous stands, there was a loss of timber production with TRIAD scenarios, but greater carbon stock and habitat quality were observed. Our study contrasts alternative management scenarios for ecosystem services in woodlots of different forest types. It confirms that multiple harvest systems better achieve multiple services. The coupling of simulation modelling with MCDA offers a simple and flexible method to help stakeholders and managers make sound decisions.

Cave temperature monitoring was carried out in the Cueva del Agua de Iznalloz, Granada, Spain, a cave that has great tourist potential and which has been maintained under natural conditions for over 30 years. The cave temperature under natural conditions was used to identify possible anthropogenic influences, in order to distinguish these from the variations directly related to natural changes. In particular, the relative influence of external weather conditions, thermal modification caused by visitors and the subsequent thermal recovery of the cave were identified. In addition, controlled experiments investigated the effect of two large-scale visits (980 and 2088 visitors day−1) to the cave interior, before any tourist activities in the cave were undertaken. Correlation and spectral analyses of time series were used to determine the thermal behaviour of the cave over time. The effect of both mass visits on the air temperature in the interior of the cave was very rapid (2.5 min). The maximum perturbation of air temperature within the cave during the two experiments was after 30 and 70 min. The memory effect for temperature whilst the cave was open to the public was estimated to be 5–6 h, whilst the response to external meteorological changes exceeded one week. A permanent visitor capacity of 53 people ensures that the natural cave temperature can be regained within 4–5 h. The cave can only support small groups of visitors, not the massive visits characteristic of show caves.

Previous studies have inferred that the side effects of physical disturbance associated with bait-collecting for the sandprawn Callianassa kraussi are more deleterious than the actual removal of the prawns. The present study was specifically designed to disentangle the side-effects of trampling and disturbance associated with using suction pumps for bait-collecting. Separate areas were sucked over with a prawn pump at three different intensities, and the prawns collected from these areas subsequently returned to them. A parallel treatment involved trampling the sediment at levels comparable to the 'sucking' intensities, without removing the prawns. The responses of the meiofauna, macrofauna and microflora were assessed six weeks after this disturbance.

Prawn densities were depressed six weeks following both sucking and trampling but recovered by 32 weeks. The meiofauna responded positively to some of the disturbance treatments; macrofaunal numbers on the other hand, declined in most treatment areas, and similarity analysis and multidimensional scaling showed that macrofaunal community composition in the most-disturbed areas was distinct from that in other areas. Chlorophyll levels were reduced at the more intensely-disturbed sites.

The results corroborate the conclusion that trampling per se has almost the same effect as sucking for prawns, on both the prawns and on the associated biota. This has important implications in terms of managing the use of lagoonal and estuarine ecosystems.

The interest in the wetlands ecosystems on Calcutta's periphery should be understood in the context of the search for development alternatives—for locally-adapted, appropriate modes of development rather than transplantation of alien models. Too often, planners look abroad for ideas without realizing that appropriate principles and practices are present in their own backyards. We are now coming to understand that ecodevelopment entails bringing together creative techniques with the ways in which people perceive and approach the issues of quality of life through environmental changes that are in the forefront of planning debates. Human and ecologically-sound planning requires an integration of such understanding with suitable techniques and procedures.

Tropical deforestation is one of the most important components of global change. Rates of deforestation in Brazil, the nation with the single largest concentration of tropical forest on Earth, have fluctuated widely over the last twenty years. Based on local knowledge, such fluctuations have been variously attributed to a wide range of factors such as the expansion of cattle ranching and soybean farming, infrastructural expansion and the proliferation of paved and unpaved roads, macroeconomic shocks to the Brazilian economy and international exchange rates. Many, if not all, of these arguments are plausible explanations for temporal variation in deforestation rates, but have to date not been subjected to rigorous statistical testing; this study investigates the potential impact of these variables on Brazilian tropical deforestation over the period 1990–2005. When analysed at the basin-wide scale, nearly all variables were highly inter-correlated through time and were also closely correlated with deforestation rate, but appropriate time-series analysis found no statistical evidence that any of the variables have systematically caused variation in deforestation rates. Power analysis showed that the variables may exert small or medium influences on deforestation rates, but the impacts, if present, are not strong. Future analyses of time series data at finer spatial scales that exploit spatiotemporal variation in deforestation rates and in the hypothesized predictor variables may find significant causal processes that are overlooked when analysed at the basin-wide scale.

Deforestation is one of the most important conservation problems in tropical developing countries, even though cost–benefit analyses consistently show that forest conservation is economically beneficial. In Madagascar, deforestation continues at alarming rates despite numerous initiatives of international donors to increase incentives for local households to support forest conservation. In this literature review, we contrast cost–benefit analyses for forest conservation with: (1) the actual burdens and (2) the actual gains of forest conservation for rural households, generated mainly in the context of conservation projects. We show that approaches to generating direct benefits deliver less value than expected for rural communities; the benefit transfer mechanisms are insufficient as the majority of benefits are captured by other stakeholders, and increased benefit transfer is limited by structural and institutional limitations in local communities, valuation chains and in terms of governance failure at higher levels.

National parks in ‘developing countries’ have tended to deviate from the western model of strict protection in order to include economic development of local people in their park management philosophy. Royal Chitwan National Park, Nepal, has been managed in such a way as to allow for limited collection of grassland products to meet vital needs of villagers for structural material.

Nearly 60,000 people are annually allowed to cut thatch and reed grasses for a nominal fee during two weeks in January: such visitation amounts each year to over 216,000 visitor-days. The total weight and value of grass products removed from the Park each year is estimated at 11,132 metric tonnes, worth NR 9.9 millions (about US $450,000). Subtraction of labour and permit costs yielded a net value of about NR 5.5 millions (about US $250,000) to the local economy. Individual villagers save about NR 2,000 (US $90) in costs for thatching material, and about NR 500 (US $25) for building canes, compared with what they would have to pay for other materials to build a house. Alternative products available in the market were considered to be unaffordable substitutes by more than 75% of the villagers questioned.

Villager attitudes toward the Park are becoming more positive as they begin to realize that the Park is a valuable, needed source of managed resources that are not so easily, or not at all, available elsewhere.

In less than two decades, the concepts of limits to growth and of the necessity of an ecologically sustainable economic order have gained international recognition. These concepts are not yet understood by most people or most governments, but belief in the necessity for planning for a sustainable future is growing.

Several lines of strategy are necessary to obtain a truly global commitment to sustainable programmes of development that will simultaneously protect The Biosphere. Among those now undertaken are the World Conservation Strategy, the international environmental education movement formalized at Tbilisi in 1977, and the World Campaign for The Biosphere.

Educational efforts are necessary but insufficient to move the world into an ecologically sustainable mode of behaviour. Political action that reflects moral conviction roused by scientific information will also be necessary. Safeguarding the environmental future and The Biosphere requires a social commitment of a moral, quasi-religious character.

Cross-disciplinary research is advocated as a way of improving understanding of the complexity of environmental problems; cross-disciplinary projects, centres and academic institutes have increased. However, there is confusion over the nature of cross-disciplinary research. Through review of papers defining themselves as cross-disciplinary that aim to address conservation problems, and by standardizing the definition of cross-disciplinary research, it is possible to evaluate the potential research impact on peers and practitioners. When papers were reclassified by authors, those reclassified as transdisciplinary were perceived to have a greater impact on practitioners, and those reclassified as non cross-disciplinary had the greatest impact on colleagues. Having clear definitions for types of cross-disciplinary research would help establish a firm foundation, not only for improving research quality, but also for evaluating research impact. While the number of cross-disciplinary studies is increasing, cross-disciplinary research falls short of integrating disciplinary methods in much depth and does not have much impact on participants outside of academia.

Fishing can have major impacts on the structure of coral reef ecosystems. Overfishing of herbivores is particularly detrimental, as it makes the coral system more likely to undergo shifts to macroalgal dominance in the event of coral mass mortality. Knowing when important processes, such as herbivory, are becoming brittle is important because it can provide an opportunity for managers to avoid undesirable ecosystem-level changes. This study investigates the impact of artisanal fishing on three important functional groups of herbivores (grazers, scrapers and excavators) on five coral-dominated reefs outside Zanzibar (Tanzania). There was a negative correlation between fishing pressure and fish biomass, abundance, diversity and species richness. Moreover, fishing had a negative influence on the demographic structure of functional groups, particularly excavators, manifesting itself as a skewness towards smaller individuals within populations. Artisanal fishing can have significant impacts on key functional groups of herbivorous reef fishes which may increase the vulnerability of coral reefs to undesirable ecosystem shifts.

Many landscapes contain traditional rural systems of high environmental value and are attractive for cultural tourism, while the traditional activities indicate sensible use of some marginal areas, whether protected or not. Recreational activities and tourism constitute new uses lending cultural and economic interest. To maintain both rural and recreational uses of landscape, links need to be established with the local population, which has a tendency to abandon such rural areas. In this study, landscapes in Central Spain were categorized using variables which described their structure and associated natural and cultural characteristics. Visitors were categorized by surveying their visit preferences. Multivariate analyses of the two sets of data determined the degree of correspondence between the type of visitors and what the landscape could ‘offer’, considering perception, preferences, potential interest in specific landscapes (‘outdoor recreational niche’) and degree of satisfaction with regard to the natural and rural characteristics of the territory. The resulting thematic maps constitute useful tools for developing planning and environmental management strategies.

Although bushmeat is known locally to be an important source of protein, large-scale patterns of demand are poorly defined. One area for which information is especially lacking is northern Cameroon, and this study therefore conducted a survey of 345 households in this region. Information sought from questionnaire interviews included the frequency of consumption, species preferences, and prices of bushmeat, together with people's perceptions of trends in the wildlife population involved. Bushmeat was estimated to represent c. 24% of the animal protein intake in the region and respondents generally preferred bushmeat to meat from domestic livestock. North African porcupine (Hystrix cristata) was the most preferred species, closely followed by guinea fowl (Numida meleagris), and Buffon's kob (Kobus kob). There was a tendency for the price of a kilogramme of bushmeat to decrease with the weight of the animal. A majority of the respondents said they perceived declines in some wild animal species within the last 10 years. For those who eat bushmeat one or more times a week, there was a tendency for villagers to eat more bushmeat than for people in towns. A number of measures should be taken, including wildlife farming and domestication and anti-poaching measures in national parks.

In contemporary environmental conservation, species are judged in terms of their origin (‘nativeness’), as well as their behaviour and impacts (‘invasiveness’). In many instances, however, the term ‘non-native’ has been used as a proxy for harmfulness, implying the need for control. Some scientists have attempted to discourage this practice, on the grounds that it is inappropriate and counterproductive to judge species on their origin alone. However, to date, no empirical data exist on the degree to which nativeness in itself (that is, a species’ origin) shapes people's attitudes towards management interventions in practice. This study addresses this void, demonstrating empirically that both the public and invasive species professionals largely ignore a species’ origin when evaluating the need for conservation action. Through a questionnaire-based survey of the general public and invasive species experts in both Scotland and Canada, the study revealed that perceived abundance and damage to nature and the economy, rather than non-nativeness, informed attitudes towards species management, empirically substantiating the claim that a species’ perceived abundance and impact, and not its origin, is what really matters to most people. Natural resource management should thus focus explicitly on impact-related criteria, rather than on a species’ origin.