Maintaining ice-core quality through the brittle ice zone (BIZ) remains challenging for polar ice-core studies. At depth, increasing ice overburden pressurizes trapped air bubbles, causing fracture of cores upon exposure to atmospheric pressure. Fractured ice cores degrade analyses, reducing resolution and causing contamination. BIZ encounters at 18 sites across the Greenland, West and East Antarctic ice sheets are documented. The BIZ begins at a mean depth of 545 ± 162 m (1 standard deviation), extending to depths where ductile clathrate ice is reached: an average of 1132 ± 178 m depth. Ice ages in this zone vary with snow accumulation rate and ice thickness, beginning as young as 2 ka BP at Dye-3, Greenland, affecting ice >160 ka BP in age at Taylor Dome, Antarctica, and compromising up to 90% of retrieved samples at intermediate-depth sites. Effects of pressure and temperature on the BIZ are explored using modeled firn-column overburden pressure and borehole temperatures, revealing complex associations between firn densification and BIZ depth, and qualitatively supporting expected thinning of the BIZ at low ice temperatures due to shallower clathrate stability. Mitigating techniques for drilling, transport, sampling and analysis of brittle ice cores are also discussed.

During spring 2013, we performed 500 MHz, helicopter-borne impulsive ground-penetrating radar surveys of several glaciers and glacier forelands in south-central Alaska, USA. These surveys were designed to obtain spatially distributed measurements of snow accumulation spanning a broad range of continental and maritime climatic zones. Visual assessment of radar images shows that data quality varied with the terrains and was optimal for snow that covered smooth glacier ice and firn, smooth debris-covered areas and moraines, freshwater lake and river ice, tundra, and taiga. Conversely, returns from the base of the snowpack were unrecognizable over rough debris-covered glacier termini, icefalls and some high-altitude accumulation basins. Optimal flying speed was 15-20ms–1 (30–40kt). At these speeds, which are two to three times faster than previously reported for such surveys, we could still identify snow-depth data with confidence, at a point spacing of ~1.5-2.0m. Data quality on glaciers decreased with increased air speed, though useful echoes from the base of the snowpack were still obtained at 40-45 ms–1 (87 kt; data point spacing of 6-8 m). Similar high-speed surveys over non-glacial terrains were unsuccessful, as basal reflections were no longer recognizable.

This study presents a reconstruction of the mass balance (MB) of Chhota Shigri glacier, Western Himalaya, India, and discusses the regional climatic drivers responsible for its evolution since 1969. The MB is reconstructed by a temperature-index and an accumulation model using daily air-temperature and precipitation records from the nearest meteorological station, at Bhuntar Observatory. The only adjusted parameter is the altitudinal precipitation gradient. The model is calibrated against 10 years of annual altitudinal MB measurements between 2002 and 2012 and decadal cumulative MBs between 1988 and 2010. Three periods were distinguished in the MB series. Periods I (1969-85) and III (2001-12) show significant mass loss at MB rates of -0.36±0.36 and -0.57±0.36mw.e.a-1 respectively, whereas period II (1986-2000) exhibits steady-state conditions with average MBs of -0.01 ±0.36mw.e.a–1. The comparison among these three periods suggests that winter precipitation and summer temperature are almost equally important drivers controlling the MB pattern of Chhota Shigri glacier at decadal scale. The sensitivity of the modelled glacier-wide MB to temperature is -0.52 m w.e. a–1 °C–1 whereas the sensitivity to precipitation is calculated as 0.16mw.e.a-1 for a 10% change.

The Institute of Low Temperature Science at Hokkaido University conducted ice-core drilling in alpine glaciers in the northern North Pacific region to reconstruct climate change in this region for the past few hundred years. We drilled two ice cores in the Kamchatka Peninsula, Russia. An ice core with a length of 211 m was drilled on a glacier at the summit caldera of Ushkovsky mountain in 1998. A second core, with a length of 115m (until bedrock was reached), was drilled on a glacier at the summit caldera of Ichinsky mountain in 2006. We drilled three further ice cores in Alaska, USA. Two ice cores with lengths of 50 and 212m were drilled on a glacier at the summit caldera of Mount Wrangell in 2003 and 2004. The third ice core was drilled on the ice divide among three glaciers, Black Rapids, Trident and Susitna glaciers, which represent a flat saddle north of Aurora Peak in the Alaska Range. This paper details the field operations and characteristics of the different ice-drilling systems used and the problems encountered.

We combine radio-echo sounding ice thickness data from the BEDMAP Project database and the PCMEGA (Prince Charles Mountains Expedition of Germany and Australia) dataset to generate a new ice thickness grid for the southern limit region of the Amery Ice Shelf, East Antarctica. We then reassess the mass balance of the central portion of the Lambert-Amery system, incorporating flow information derived from synthetic aperture radar interferometry (InSAR) and a modeled surface mass-balance dataset based on regional atmospheric modeling. Our analysis reveals that Mellor and Fisher Glaciers are approximately in balance to the level of our measurement uncertainty, while Lambert Glacier has a positive imbalance of 4.2 ±2.3 Gta1. The mass budget for the whole Lambert Glacier basin is approximately in balance, and the average basal melt rate in the downstream section of the ice shelf is 5.1 ± 3.0 m a-1. Our results differ substantially from other recent estimates using hydrostatically derived ice thickness data.

Ground-penetrating radar has been widely used to map the thermal structure of polythermal glaciers. Hitherto, the cold–temperate transition surface (CTS) in radargrams has been identified by a labour-intensive and subjective manual picking method. We introduce a new automatic approach for picking the CTS that uses the difference in signal power exhibited by the cold and temperate ice layers. We compare our automatically computed CTS depths with manual picks. Our results show very good agreement between the two methods in most areas (r2 > 0.7). RMSEs computed at each trace in two-way travel-time from three test sites range from 14 to 19ns (2.4–3.2 m). The proposed automated method mostly fails in areas showing a rather gradual transition in signal power at the CTS. In some areas, high power originating from non-water sources is misinterpreted by the automatic picking method as ‘temperate ice’.

The Chinese First Deep Ice-Core Drilling Project DK-1 has commenced at Kunlun station in the Dome A region, the highest plateau in Antarctica. During the first season, within the 28th Chinese National Antarctic Research Expedition (CHINARE) 2011/12 the pilot hole was drilled and reamed in order to install a 100 m deep fiberglass casing. In the next season, 29th CHINARE 2012/13, the deep ice-core drilling system was installed, and all the auxiliary equipment was connected and commissioned. After filling the hole with drilling fluid (n-butyl acetate), three runs of ‘wet’ ice-core drilling were carried out and a depth of 131.24 m was reached. Drilling to the bedrock at the target depth of ∼3100 m is planned to be completed during a further four seasons. We describe the work in progress and the status of equipment for the Dome A drilling project.

At both corners of the now stagnant Kamb Ice Stream (KIS, West Antarctica) outlet, shear margins of different ages confine wedge-shaped areas with relatively flat, smooth surfaces that stagnated before the main trunk of the ice stream. We identify these features as lakes or past lakes, and consider scenarios for their development in a regional history of ongoing adjustment to grounding-line position. We focus here on the centuries leading up to the recent stagnation of KIS, a time when its grounding line appears to have advanced >100km from an earlier upstream location. Starting from stagnation of Crary Ice Rise and changes in the grounding zone of Whillans Ice Stream, we trace feedbacks associated with local thickening, ice grounding and thickness transients that both advance the grounding line and leave remnant lakes in their wake. These lakes in turn promote the development of secondary margins that may appear as ‘margin jumps’ in the ice record.

In 2010 a reflection seismic survey was carried out on the Alpine glacier Colle Gnifetti. The processed and depth-converted data could be compared to a nearby ice core, drilled almost to the bed. Comparisons showed that the depth of the P-wave bed reflection was too shallow, while the depth of the SH-wave bed reflection fitted the ice-core length well. We are now able to explain the major part of these differences using the existing crystal orientations of the ice at Colle Gnifetti. We calculate anisotropic velocities for P- and SH-waves that are usually picked for stacking and compare them with zero-offset velocities needed for the depth conversion. Here we take the firn pack at Colle Gnifetti into account for P- and S-wave analysis. To incorporate the S-wave analysis we first derive a new equation for the relationship between density and S-wave velocity from diving waves. We show that anisotropic fabrics observed at Colle Gnifetti introduce a difference of only 1% between stacking and depth-conversion velocities for the SH-wave, but 7% for the P-wave. We suggest that this difference in stacking and depth-conversion velocity for the P-wave can be used to derive information about the existing anisotropy by combining our seismic data with, for example, radar data.

δ18O measurements based on systematic sampling and isotopic modeling have been adopted to study the controls of stable isotopes in lake water in two lake basins (lakes Yamdrok-tso and Puma Yum-tso) at two different elevations on the southern Tibetan Plateau. Temporally, δ18O values in precipitation and lake water display a seasonal fluctuation in both lakes. Spatially, δ18O values in the two lake basins increase by 10% from the termini of glaciers to the lake shores, by ∽1% from the lake shores to the lake center and by 0.4% from the water surface to depth in these lakes. The clear annual δ18O variations indicate that lake water mixes sufficiently in a short time. Model results show that glacial meltwater and surface lake-water temperature are not the dominant factors in the balance process of stable isotopes in lake water. Equilibrium δ18O values decrease by 0.8% for Yamdrok-tso lake and 0.6% for Puma Yum-tso lake when glacial meltwater contributions to these lakes shrink by 60%. δ18O ratios increase rapidly during the initial stages and take a longer time to approach the equilibrium value.

In deep ice-coring, as in many other disciplines, a winching system is involved in the overall operation of the drilling activities. The need to efficiently store the cable on the winch drum is well recognized, and the ‘orthocyclically wound’ approach is often used. This is accomplished by means of a ‘Lebus groove’, along with a level winding scheme of some description. The level wind is usually implemented in one of several ways using some mechanism to synchronize the position of the level wind with the point where the cable meets the winch drum. A novel method using a feedback control system is presented in this paper, introducing a virtually error-free approach to the surprisingly difficult task of level winding.

Patterns in radar-detected internal layers in glaciers and ice streams can be tracked hundreds of kilometers downstream. We use distinctive patterns to delineate flowbands of Thwaites Glacier in the Amundsen Sea sector of West Antarctica. Flowbands contain information for the past century to millennium, the approximate time for ice to flow through the study region. GPS-detected flow directions (acquired in 2007/08) agree within uncertainty (~4°) with the radar-detected flowlines, indicating that the flow direction has not changed significantly in recent centuries. In contrast, InSAR-detected directions (from 1996) differ from the radar- and GPS-detected flowlines in all but the middle tributary, indicating caution is needed when using InSAR velocities to define flow directions. There is agreement between all three datasets in the middle tributary. We use two radar-detected flowlines to define a 95 km long flowband and perform a flux balance analysis using InSAR-derived velocities, radar-detected ice thickness, and estimates of the accumulation rate. Inferred thinning of 0.49 ± 0.34 m a–1 is consistent with satellite altimetry measurements, but has higher uncertainty due mainly to the velocity uncertainty. The uncertainty is underestimated because InSAR velocities often differ from GPS velocities by more than the stated uncertainties.

The IceCube Neutrino Observatory was constructed at the South Pole during the 2004/05 to 2010/11 austral summer seasons. IceCube transforms 1 km3 of Antarctic ice into an astrophysical particle detector composed of 86 cables (strings) of optical sensors buried deep beneath the surface. Each string required drilling a borehole ∼60 cm in diameter to a depth of 2500 m. The 5 MW Enhanced Hot Water Drill was designed and built specifically for this task, capable of producing the required boreholes at a rate of one hole per 48 hours. Hot-water drilling on this scale presented unique challenges and was rich in lessons learned, yielding a collection of notable developments and takeaways (e.g. fuel-saving measures, thermal modeling, firn drilling and closed-loop computer control). Descriptions of system functionality and of lessons learned from IceCube drilling are presented.

Dynamic ice-sheet models are used to assess the contribution of mass loss from the Greenland ice sheet to sea-level rise. Mass transfer from ice sheet to ocean is in a large part through outlet glaciers. Bed topography plays an important role in ice dynamics, since the acceleration from the slow-moving inland ice to an ice stream is in many cases caused by the existence of a subglacial trough or trough system. Problems are that most subglacial troughs are features of a scale not resolved in most ice-sheet models and that radar measurements of subglacial topography do not always reach the bottoms of narrow troughs. The trough-system algorithm introduced here employs mathematical morphology and algebraic topology to correctly represent subscale features in a topographic generalization, so the effects of troughs on ice flow are retained in ice-dynamic models. The algorithm is applied to derive a spatial elevation model of Greenland subglacial topography, integrating recently collected radar measurements (CReSIS data) of the Jakobshavn Isbræ, Helheim, Kangerdlussuaq and Petermann glacier regions. The resultant JakHelKanPet digital elevation model has been applied in dynamic ice-sheet modeling and sea-level-rise assessment.

In 2005, two ice cores with lengths of 58.7 and 57.6 m respectively to bedrock were recovered from the Miaoergou flat-topped glacier (43°03′19″ N, 94°19′21″ E; 4512 m a.s.l.), eastern Tien Shan. 210Pb dating of one of the ice cores (57.6 m) was performed, and an age of AD 1851 ± 6 at a depth of 35.2 mw.e. was determined. For the period AD 1851-2005, a mean annual net accumulation of 229 ± 7 mm w.e. a–1 was calculated. At the nearby oasis city of Hami (~80 km from the Miaoergou flat-topped glacier) the annual precipitation rate is 38 mm w.e. a–1, hence glacial meltwater is a major water supply for local residents. The surface activity concentration of 210Pbex was found to be ~400 mBq kg–1, which is higher than observed at other continental sites such as Belukha, Russia, and Tsambagarav, Mongolia, which have surface activity concentrations of 280 mBq kg–1. The 210Pb dating agrees well with the chronological sequence deduced from the annual-layer counting resulting from the seasonalities of d18O and trace metals for the period AD 1953-2005, and ^-activity horizons resulting from atmospheric nuclear testing during the period AD 1962-63. We conclude that 210Pb analysis is a suitable method for obtaining a continuous dating of the Miaoergou ice core for ~160 years, which can also be applied to other ice cores recovered from the mountains of western China.

Glacier surface melting can be described using energy-balance models. We conducted a surface energy budget experiment to quantify surface energy fluxes and to identify factors affecting glacial melt in the ablation zone of Laohugou glacier No. 12, western Qilian mountains. The surface energy budget was calculated based on data from an automatic weather station, and turbulent fluxes calculated using the bulk-aerodynamic approach were corrected using measurements from an eddy-covariance system. Simulated mass balances were validated by stake observations. Net shortwave radiation was the primary component of the surface energy balance (126Wm–2), followed by sensible heat flux. Net longwave radiation (–45Wm–2) and latent heat flux (–12.8 Wm–2) represented heat sinks. The bulk-aerodynamic method underestimated sensible and latent heat fluxes by 3.4 and 1.2 W m–2, respectively. The simulated total mass balance of –1703mmw.e. exceeded the observed total by 90 mm w.e. Daily positive accumulated temperature and low albedo were the main factors accelerating glacier melt. An uncertainty assessment showed that mass balance was very sensitive to albedo and varied by 36% when albedo changed by 0.1.

We analyze the internal stratigraphy in radio-echo sounding data of the northeast Greenland ice stream to infer past and present ice dynamics. In the upper reaches of the ice stream, we propose that shear-margin steady-state folds in internal reflecting horizons (IRHs) form due to the influence of ice flow over spatially varying basal lubrication. IRHs are generally lower in the ice stream than outside, likely because of greater basal melting in the ice stream from enhanced geothermal flux and heat of sliding. Strain-rate modeling of IRHs deposited during the Holocene indicates no recent major changes in ice-stream vigor or extent in this region. Downstream of our survey, IRHs are disrupted as the ice flows into a prominent overdeepening. When combined with additional data from other studies, these data suggest that upstream portions of the ice stream are controlled by variations in basal lubrication whereas downstream portions are confined by basal topography.

IceCube, a cubic-kilometer neutrino detector, was built at the South Pole using a hot-water drill system. Deep holes were drilled into the Antarctic ice sheet and filled with highly sensitive optical instrumentation. For the hot-water drilling, a computer model was developed to predict the hole sizes and hole lifetimes during construction. The goal was to predict ultimate size and freezeback rates based on water flow rate and temperature, drill speed, ice temperature and ream parameters (for a secondary operation where hot water continues to flow as the drill is withdrawn). This model proved to be very successful. It increased confidence that the holes would remain open long enough after drilling to allow the deployment of the necessary instrumentation. It also allowed for a decrease, over the course of the project, in the amount of overdrilling that was used as a margin against a too-rapid freeze-in. This resulted in significant fuel savings.

Electromechanical cable-suspended drilling technology is considered one of the most feasible methods for subglacial bedrock drilling. The outstanding feature of this technology is that the bit load produced by the drill weight is usually within the range 1.5–4 kN while the recommended load for diamond drilling is 10–30 kN or even more. Therefore, searching for the diamond bits that can drill in extremely hard formations with minimal load and acceptable rates of penetration and torque is the necessary step to prove the feasibility of electromechanical subglacial drilling technology. A special test stand has been designed and constructed to examine the impregnated, surface-set, toothed and specially manufactured bionic drill bits. The results of experiments with ten types of drill bits show that the toothed diamond drill bit has the highest penetration rate of 3.18 m h−1 in very hard and abrasive granite under a 3 kN load. The torque (28.7 Nm) and power consumption (1.5 kW) of toothed drill bits are acceptable for cable-suspended drilling. The penetration rates of bionic drill bits may also be considered suitable and fall within the range 1.0–1.69 m h−1 under the lowest tested load.

The Asian–Pacific Oscillation (APO) is a climate pattern related to the thermal differences between the Asian continent and the north Pacific. We present a 1000 year record of the major ions in a 108.83 m ice core from east Rongbuk glacier (28°01′ N, 86°58′ E; 6518ma.s.l.) on the northeast slope of Qomolangma (Mount Everest), and discuss its relationship with a 993 year time series of the summer APO index that has been reconstructed from Beijing’s summer temperature (recorded by a stalagmite) and the Pacific Decadal Oscillation (PDO) index. Empirical orthogonal function (EOF) analysis shows that crustal major ions (Mg2+, Ca2+, SO42– and NO3–) are highly loaded on EOF1, whereas marine major ions (Cl– and Na+) are highly loaded on EOF2. Higher EOF1 is associated with lower upper-troposphere temperature (UTT) over Mongolia, corresponding to a lower APO index and higher surface pressure. Higher EOF2 is associated with higher UTT over Mongolia, corresponding to a higher APO index and lower surface pressure. The higher burden of major ions and higher summer APO index during the period AD 1000–1323 may be due to drought and warm climate of the major-ion source regions. From AD1323 to 1900, EOF1 and EOF2 do not show a consistent correlation with summer APO index, indicating the complex mechanisms of ion transport over the southern Tibetan Plateau (TP) during this period. After AD 1900, the summer APO index is correlated negatively with EOF1 and positively with EOF2, indicating that ion transport over the southern TP during this period is influenced significantly by the APO. Our examinations of the PDO index and major-ion record show that higher PDO corresponds to higher EOF1 and lower EOF2. This suggests that the correlation between the recorded major-ion concentration and the APO index originates in the seesaw relationship in temperature between the Asian continent and the north Pacific.