The IBF is a quotient of the relative numerical value of two fundamental rights – the numerical value assigned as a result of input elements for the right to privacy divided by the numerical value assigned to the freedom of expression as a result of input elements. The input elements are internet vulnerability, degree of interference into privacy, the element of time, public interest, public figure, how the information was obtained and empathy. The Internet Balancing Formula is capable of maximising the element of transparency and minimising the element of arbitrariness in private online balancing. It is therefore a tool that brings optimised order to the online dimension of conflicting fundamental rights. The formula can claim correctness in a given time–space related context. It is a rational, mathematical and living instrument.

Introduction

As discussed in Chapter 3, several Indicators have been proposed for the 169 Targets for the 17 SDGs, and consequently different types of metadata, terminologies and guidelines have been developed for gathering and sharing of the relevant data. However, it is evident that given the diversity of the SDGs and their associated Targets, the Indicators are also quite diverse. Given the fact that every country in the world is required to gather data for measuring success in the diverse set of SDG Targets, it is quite evident that the Indicators are based on the established measurement methods and data availability – in particular, time series – and data consistency (Spangenberg, 2019).

This chapter discusses different SDG Indicators, with some examples to demonstrate the diverse sets of data required for measuring success. Achievements of success in different SDGs are also discussed and appropriate sources for full reports on achievements in the SDGs are also provided for the further understanding of the reader. Specific challenges associated with data quality, data completion, data aggregation and so on are also discussed, to demonstrate how data and information form the foundation of the SDGs and their Targets. This chapter also discusses various challenges associated with data collection, data sharing and use for some Indicators. The differences amongst countries and regions in terms of data availability vis-a-vis achievements in specific SDG Targets are also discussed. The discussions in this chapter demonstrate the needs for co-operation and collaboration at inter - national level, and also the need for understanding of various social and human issues that are associated with data collection, data sharing and data use.

Metadata and the FAIR principles

The FAIR (Findable, Accessible, Interoperable, and Reusable) data principles were proposed in 2016 to promote data sharing (Wilkinson et al., 2016). These principles have since been adopted by research institutions worldwide in order to support knowledge discovery and innovation, as well as data and knowledge integration, and to promote sharing and reuse of data. The FAIR principles help data and metadata to be machine-readable, supporting new discoveries through the harvesting and analysis of multiple datasets (CGIAR, n.d.).

As we show in Chapter 2, there has been a long tradition of the archaeological research in both the Pampas and Patagonia since the end of the nineteenth century. From the very beginning of the investigations, the Late Pleistocene human occupation was at the top of the research agenda in both regions. Giant ground sloth skins from Cueva del Milodón and human skulls supposedly found in very ancient (Tertiary) layers in the Pampas seashore ignited the imagination of scientists of those times, and fieldwork looking for spectacular findings as well as reckless interpretations abounded. Since then, the first human occupation has been the main focus of the archaeological investigation in both regions. This chapter summarizes and discusses the results of this almost continuous, intense, and fertile archaeological research.

This chapter discusses some of the existing beliefs about juror decision-making and the jury process at three distinct phases of a trial: before the trial, during the trial, and at the trial’s conclusion. Before the trial, there are beliefs surrounding the jury process, including jury duty, jury size, and jury selection (i.e. voir dire). During the trial, there are common beliefs surrounding courtroom factors that influence jury decision-making, including attitudes, beliefs, and expectations regarding attorneys, expert witnesses, confession evidence, and emotion-evoking evidence. Finally, at the end of trial, there is the existing belief that juries make extreme and unpredictable decisions in civil and criminal court. This chapter uses current research and empirical evidence within law and behavioral sciences to examine these myths, showing support for some of these beliefs, while also showing that others are simply myths about jury decision-making. Finally, the chapter discusses future research to address such myths.

This chapter uses archaeological theory to enrich readings of Old Norse-Icelandic literature, exploring human interactions with the physical world during the Viking Age. The focus is on artefacts, buildings and constructed places in the landscape. The chapter begins with a survey of Viking Age material culture studies, emphasizing the move beyond data collection to ways of probing meaning and highlighting new areas of archaeological research and theory, including landscape archaeology, geophysics and laboratory-based techniques such as isotopic analysis. Theories of landscape and the social significance of the physical world are discussed, and also the way materials, methods of construction, and the form and decoration of material culture carry meaning. The role of diaspora studies is also explored. The chapter continues with an analysis of three particular kinds of object – swords, brooches and combs – and moves on to consider acts of transformation and the magic associated with objects, especially hoards and ritual deposition. There are sections on the construction of Viking Age buildings, ships and mounds and what they can tell us about life in the Viking Age.

In this chapter, I test the effects of post-Stalinist transitions on two important measures of agency capacity: officers employed and individuals registered as secret informants by coercive agencies. I present an original cross-national dataset on officer and informant numbers for every coercive agency in communist Central and Eastern Europe from 1945 to 1989. I show that countries that experienced post-Stalinist transitions had similarly sized coercive agencies to other states before 1953, but these agencies shrank thereafter while others continued to grow. I then estimate a series of difference-in-difference models to test the effect of post-Stalinist transitions on agency size. I find that agencies under post-Stalinist regimes had significantly smaller coercive agencies after Stalin’s death. This confirms the theoretical logic laid out in Chapter 2 in a broader setting than the comparative historical analyses of Poland and East Germany in Chapters 4 and 5. Although the number of cases and coverage of data here are limited, my results suggest that the logic of elite cohesion and coercive capacity laid out in Chapter 2 is applicable to a wide range of authoritarian regimes.

The subject of this chapter is rímur (rhymes), long narrative poems intended to be delivered orally, which were the most important secular poetic genre in Iceland from the late Middle Ages to the end of the nineteenth century. The chapter provides a comprehensive overview of the genre, beginning with a brief introduction to the rímur and the terminology used to describe them, before focusing in detail on their metrical form and linguistic features. It then discusses the relationship of the rímur with their different kinds of source material, since almost all are based on pre-existing narratives, particularly the riddarasögur and fornaldarsögur. It surveys what is known of the poems’ authorship, performance and dating, as well as describing the manuscripts in which they are preserved. Finally, it outlines the critical and editorial history of the rímur, arguing that their unusual linguistic and metrical features, their long-lasting popularity and the significance of their interactions with other genres of Old Norse-Icelandic literature means they deserve more scholarly attention than they have typically received.

This chapter discusses the interactions between Latin learning and Old Norse-Icelandic vernacular literature between the twelfth and fourteenth centuries. Beginning with the arrival of Latin textual culture in Iceland with the introduction of Christianity, it describes how oral literary culture was transformed by contact with these new forms of learning. It takes as case-studies manuscripts which reveal the influence of learned material, first considering the relationship between Ari’s Íslendingabók and the study of computus, chronology and geographical learning, and then discussing encyclopaedic handbooks attributed to two lawmen, Sturla Þórðarson’s Resensbók and Haukr Erlendsson’s Hauksbók. To explore the interaction between Latin learning and skaldic poetry, it then focuses on Codex Wormianus, a compilation of vernacular grammatical literature and skaldic poetics. It argues that skaldic verse was reconciled with Christian textual culture by functioning in vernacular grammatical literature in the same way as classical verse did in Latin culture, and analyses an example from the Third Grammatical Treatise to show how a skaldic stanza could be used in this way.

At times like this, when the way forward isn’t clear, framing the choice – a quick check into what the decision is all about – can be helpful. And important. Taking control over how we picture the decisions we face is part of transforming decision problems into decision opportunities. The decision frame determines how we bring who we are and what we care about into the decision-making picture.

This chapter provides an overview of studies that call on the syntactic features of connectives as a means to disambiguate their function and meaning. These syntactic features cover the morphosyntactic nature of discourse connectives as well as their syntagmatic distribution. On the basis of existing lexicons of discourse connectives, we first give an overview of the morphosyntactic distribution of discourse connectives in several European and non-European languages. We then address a number of studies that focus on the (semi-automatic) identification and annotation of discourse connectives in context. This is of particular interest in the field of natural language processing, but also in the field of contrastive linguistics, where it has been shown that syntactic categories, including those underlying the description of discourse connective uses, are not always cross-linguistically valid. The final section is devoted to the relationship between the syntagmatic position of discourse connectives and their meaning, which has given rise to numerous studies at the grammar-discourse interface highlighting the fuzzy boundary between discourse connectives and discourse markers.

The basic principles and practices of SMMR are introduced based on the simplest scenario that one can encounter in applied social science research: a single sufficient condition. The main types of cases and various fundamental principles of SMMR are detailed, the same as the first formulas introduced that distinguish better from worse cases for within-case analysis if fuzzy sets are used. Learning goals: - Understand how membership of cases in the QCA solution and the outcome is used for sorting cases into one of the four basic case types - Learn about the first set of SMMR principles that guide the selection of cases for within-case analyses on the mechanism linking the condition to the outcome - Get acquainted with the seven possible SMMR designs: three single-case and four comparative SMMR designs - Become familiar with the basic logic of the smmr() function - Learn about formulas distinguishing between better and worse case choices for within-case analyses - Understand the different scenarios in which a typical and an iir case can hold membership in the condition, the outcome, and the mechanism and the implications of these scenarios for causal inference

This chapter covers the history of banking in the Iberian Peninsula from the early nineteenth century to the beginning of the twenty-first century. The narrative provides a complete, albeit brief, historical overview of how the financial structures of the two countries have evolved. It also offers a comparative perspective of the two financial systems, pointing out to their similarities and their differences. The first part of the chapter describes the formation of the Portuguese and the Spanish banking systems. Special attention is given to the main changes that took place since their early beginnings to the consolidation and modernization of the banking structure in both countries. The second part traces the history of the two Iberian central banks: the Bank of Portugal and the Bank of Spain. The last section compares the banking structure and development of the two Iberian nations, and brings out their similarities and differences. First the attention is focused on comparing the main features of the Portuguese and Spanish private commercial and investment institutions. The chapter finishes with a brief evaluation of the historical role played by the Bank of Portugal and the Bank of Spain.