This chapter explores the final step in the evaluation process: the judgement itself. When the evaluation process is triggered through a noticeable breach of expectations, interactants draw on the various facets of their evaluation warrant (as explained in Chapters 7 and 8) and make a judgement. Chapter 9 focuses on this verdict stage of the process and explores the various elements associated with this. It points out that emotions are often intimately linked with the whole process of evaluation and argues that judgement of behaviour and judgement of the agent need to be distinguished. Often the two are imperceptibly merged, with ‘rude behaviour’ turning into a judgement of ‘rude individual’. Drawing on a theory of blame, the chapter unpacks the various elements that influence people’s judgement of the agent. It also acknowledges that the judgement process is affected by the dynamics of behavioural interaction, including issues such as mindfulness. Finally, the chapter argues that reflecting on the whole evaluation process, including the different perspectives that people may have on what happened and different reasons for it, can be extremely valuable for enhancing intercultural awareness and promoting positive intercultural relations.

This final chapter of the book considers the implications of its findings for the intercultural field. The chapter explores a number of facets that are important both conceptually and from an applied point of view, including the relevance of ‘relating’ to intercultural competence and training, factors that affect the relating process, and the nature of the culture, context and behaviour interface. The chapter ends by suggesting some directions for future research. There are eight main sections in the chapter: intercultural relations and conceptions of intercultural competence; intercultural competence as behaviour: the contribution of interactional discourse; relational management as an interaction and evaluative process; the importance of context; exploring the interface of culture, context and behaviour; culture and social groups; intercultural relations and intercultural training; future research directions.

In this chapter, we attempt to summarize the vast literature on evaluation of cross-cultural training programs. We start by discussing theoretical frameworks that can be gainfully employed for assessing the effectiveness of training programs. Evaluation frameworks have stressed the need to consider affective, cognitive and behavioral dimensions of training and the need for evaluations to assess economic, social and psychological outcomes. Theoretical frameworks suggest whether, how and why training programs are effective. Our review, however, also suggests that there is a large gap between optimal training evaluations and the reality of existing empirical research. We present empirical research on the effectiveness of CCT for outcomes grouped according to the Kirkpatrick’s four levels of training evaluation. Best practices for training design and delivery are also presented. Finally, we review the role of individual differences in cross-cultural training success, basically underscoring the need for an aptitude by treatment interaction.

Russia is often described as a complex, unpredictable, and distinct culture that poses substantial challenges for sojourners. Many sojourners perceive Russian nationals as both hard-working and lethargic, approachable and inaccessible, or trusting and distrusting. These contrasts and complexities make it challenging for sojourners to adjust and function effectively. This paper provides some resources for cross-cultural training professionals working with sojourners going to Russia by shedding light on some important aspects of the Russian culture. We discuss the culture-general and culture-specific aspects relevant for sojourners in Russia and discuss how culture-general theories can explain some of the specific aspects of the Russian culture. We discuss implications for cross-cultural trainers preparing sojourners for Russia and provide recommendations for training design.

While Multicultural Counseling Training (MCT) and Intercultural Training (ICT) represent two prominent, culture-focused specialties that concern with cultural, intercultural, and human diversity issues, there have been surprisingly little to no intersections or interactions between the two disciplines up to this point. To bridge this gap, the current chapter offers a comprehensive and synergetic review of MCT and its relevance and implication for ICT. Accordingly, the present chapter systematically surveys and analyzes: (1) MCT’s historical roots and development; (2) its parallels and similarities to ICT; (3) the definition of multicultural counseling practice and training; (4) the advent of professional standards for MCT; (5) MCT’s operationalization and measurement of cultural competence; (6) its training models, methods, and techniques; and (7) the prevailing and emerging themes and issues of MCT. In this review, striking parallels and intriguing divergences between MCT and ICT are identified, juxtaposed, and examined, from their respective historical, sociopolitical, intellectual, and methodological traditions and contexts. Critical thoughts and recommended directions to encourage a greater intellectual cross-fertilization and interdisciplinary collaboration between the two specialty areas are considered and presented. As follows, this integrative review represents among the first systematic attempts to facilitate the linkage and the synthesis between these two eminent, allied disciplines.

This chapter describes Paul Pedersen’s Triad Training Model, which is a unique experiential activity originally designed for counselors-in-training to help them better understand culturally different others. While it is a versatile tool that can be effective in other types of training situations, it is not well-known outside the field of multicultural counseling. While many popular intercultural simulations target cultural awareness, the Triad Training model is more holistic in that it is able to simultaneously raise awareness, impart cultural knowledge, address emotional issues, and help participants develop skills. This chapter begins by explaining the cultural context that gave birth to the model as well as its research foundation in psychology. Next, it examines its goals as well as how it evolved during the forty years since its creation. Finally, because the model is confrontational in its approach, the author shows how she adapted it for collectivist cultures.

This chapter proposes that globalization of multinational enterprises (MNEs) can be viewed as involving self-organizing swarms searching for optimal solutions to challenges presented by new and rapidly changing organizational ecologies. These challenges include developing innovative strategies for leadership, communication, training, management style, organizational design, and so forth. In this model, optimization most effectively occurs through evolutionary performance-based processes rather than more rational, analytic ones. This chapter applies recent theory and research on swarm intelligence to globalization, relates it to work on building microcultures in MNEs and suggests that the combination of these two processes can lead to more “intelligent swarming.” The latter involves a more detailed description of the past solution attempts of one’s own work team and those of other potentially comparable teams, including a fuller explication of key ecological characteristics, identification of potentially relevant comparison ecologies, and accurate evaluation of solution outcomes. It also involves better data storage and retrieval.Conditions which nurture intelligent swarming are discussed. Two training activities that have been used in a variety of organizational contexts and adaptable to enhancing intelligent swarming are described – “World Café” and “Smart Swarming.”

Economic globalization brings increasing demands and opportunities for intercultural training and education that produce novel consequences on people’s mind, behavior, and life quality. Why and how do intercultural training and education change mind and behavior? This chapter aims to address these issues from a cultural neuroscience perspective. By reviewing recent brain imaging findings of East Asian/Western cultural differences in neural underpinnings of cognition and emotion, we discuss the neural basis for understanding intercultural training and education by examining changes of functional brain activity underlying cognitive and affective processes. We propose a theoretical analysis of intercultural training and education based on the culture-behavior-brain loop model of human development. Future issues related to intercultural training and education are discussed.

One of the major challenges of intercultural training refers to the question, how it can be implemented in intractable violent and persistent conflict. Usually, societies in conflict do not recognize the need for intercultural training because they concentrate on mutual delegitimizing and harming each other. Also, they do not strive to promote their relations as a goal stands in their priority. The current chapter suggests that intercultural training under conflict is possible but involves a long process. During the conflict, and especially during times of its de-escalation, it is possible to begin to provide information about the rival. In further stages, especially during negotiations for its peaceful resolution, it is possible to initiate encounters between rival group members. In order to reach the desired outcomes of intercultural training, groups in conflict should get to know each other, not only in conflict-related contexts but also in everyday humane contexts. It is a long process that requires the mobilization and involvement of all institutions. By training that provides neutral and positive information that humanizes, personifies, and legitimizes the opposite group, rival groups can formulate their perceptions towards their adversary in a way that considers its multidimensional aspects, thereby contributing to changing delegitimization of the rival group.

Various issues related to training methods and outcomes of intercultural training are reviewed by employing a typology of intercultural training that integrates aspects of culture-specific and culture-general training with didactic and experiential learning styles. This is followed by a brief discussion of the process of experiential learning, issues pertaining to cognitive affective and behavioral training, how context shapes the selection of methods, and how traditional methods can be updated with technology to meet modern needs. The role of culture in shaping the choice of methods and issues related to training across and about cultures is discussed.How knowledge, skill and attitudes shape the selection of intercultural training methods, and the significance of personal and cultural preferences in mediating training outcomes, and the interaction between desired outcomes, participant data, and situational factors are noted. In addition, 20 intercultural methods –lectures, written materials, online-based training, films, self-assessment, case studies, and critical incidents, role playing, simulation games, and intercultural exercises, contrast culture training, culture assimilator, cross-cultural analysis, cross-cultural dialogues, areas studies, immersion, visual imagery, and art and culture – that are currently employed are analyzed to examine current trends in training, the contexts in which methods are applied, and the factors that affect the choice of one method over another. The analyses include an assessment of strengths and weaknesses, typical outcomes, adaptability, ways the methods have or could be used, availability of the method in off-the-shelf versions, and resources for finding out more about it.Trainers are encouraged to master a variety of methods because no single method will work all of the time in producing the desired outcomes that best suit their client’s needs.