To assess household availability of NOVA food groups in nineteen European countries and to analyse the association between availability of ultra-processed foods and prevalence of obesity.

Ecological, cross-sectional study.

Europe.

Estimates of ultra-processed foods calculated from national household budget surveys conducted between 1991 and 2008. Estimates of obesity prevalence obtained from national surveys undertaken near the budget survey time.

Across the nineteen countries, median average household availability amounted to 33·9 % of total purchased dietary energy for unprocessed or minimally processed foods, 20·3 % for processed culinary ingredients, 19·6 % for processed foods and 26·4 % for ultra-processed foods. The average household availability of ultra-processed foods ranged from 10·2 % in Portugal and 13·4 % in Italy to 46·2 % in Germany and 50·4 % in the UK. A significant positive association was found between national household availability of ultra-processed foods and national prevalence of obesity among adults. After adjustment for national income, prevalence of physical inactivity, prevalence of smoking, measured or self-reported prevalence of obesity, and time lag between estimates on household food availability and obesity, each percentage point increase in the household availability of ultra-processed foods resulted in an increase of 0·25 percentage points in obesity prevalence.

The study contributes to a growing literature showing that the consumption of ultra-processed foods is associated with an increased risk of diet-related non-communicable diseases. Its findings reinforce the need for public policies and actions that promote consumption of unprocessed or minimally processed foods and make ultra-processed foods less available and affordable.

To evaluate time trends in the availability of soft drinks, to identify food choices associated with their consumption and to assess the relationship between socio-economic status and daily soft drink availability in a wide range of European countries.

Data on food and beverage availability collected through the national household budget surveys and harmonized in the DAFNE (Data Food Networking) project were used. Averages and variability of soft drink availability were estimated and tests for time trends were performed. The daily availability of food groups which appear to be correlated with that of soft drinks was further estimated. Multivariate logistic and linear regression models were applied to evaluate the association between socio-economic status and the acquisition of soft drinks.

Twenty-four European countries.

Nationally representative samples of households.

The availability of soft drinks is steadily and significantly increasing. Households in West and North Europe reported higher daily availability of soft drinks in comparison to other European regions. Soft drinks were also found to be correlated with lower availability of plant foods and milk and higher availability of meat and sugar products. Lower socio-economic status was associated with more frequent and higher availability of soft drinks in the household.

Data collected in national samples of twenty-four European countries showed disparities in soft drink availability among socio-economic strata and European regions. The correlation of soft drinks with unfavourable dietary choices has public health implications, particularly among children and adolescents.

To compare individualised household budget survey (HBS) data with food consumption values derived from individual nutrition surveys (INSs).

Four European countries: Belgium, 1980–85 and 1987–88; Greece, 1993–94; Norway, 1992–94; and the United Kingdom, 1985–88.

Household budget survey data were individualised with non-parametric models. Individual nutrition survey data were converted into ‘HBS-like’ estimates, with the application of recipe-based calculations and yield factors for weight changes during food preparation. To correct for over- and underreporting or recording in both surveys, quantities (in g day−1) of 14 principal food groups were expressed as fractions of total food quantity (in g day−1). For each food group, INS and HBS-derived mean values were calculated for 24 research units, jointly defined by country (four countries involved), gender (male, female) and age (younger, middle-aged and older). Pearson correlation coefficients were calculated and correlation diagrams were drawn.

The results of this preliminary analysis show that there is value in the nutritional information derived from HBSs. However, additional and more sophisticated work is required, in order to derive reliable point and interval estimates of individual food consumption based on HBS data.

To examine the changes in Portuguese household food availability from 1990 to 1995.

Using the DAta Food NEtworking (DAFNE) classification scheme for nutritional and socio-economic variables, data from the Portuguese Household Budget Surveys collected in 1989/90 and 1994/95 were analysed. The mean availability (quantity person−1 day−1) for the total population, by locality and by level of education of the household head, was computed for each of the main food and beverage groups.

Portugal, 1989 to 1995.

Although still among one of the countries with high availability of cereals, pulses, fish and seafood and olive oil, Portugal is gradually moving away from the traditional ‘Mediterranean diet’. Between 1989 and 1995, the availability of complex carbohydrates and olive oil was reduced, while the availability of protein-supplying food groups increased. Considerable disparities can be observed by locality and by the level of education of the household head. Households in urban areas and of higher socio-economic status are the main actors of the changes in ‘traditional’ food habits.

Although these findings are based on household food availability rather than consumption, they indicate the direction of the changes taking place in the Portuguese diet and can be used effectively by agriculture specialists, nutrition experts and policy makers.

To describe the methodology applied in order to render comparable, at the level of the dietary information collected, the household budget survey (HBS) and individual nutrition survey (INS) data from four European countries (Belgium, Greece, Norway and the United Kingdom).

In Belgium, data from the HBS of 1987–88 were compared with data from the Belgian Interuniversity Research on Nutrition and Health collected from 1980 to 1985. In Greece, data from the HBS undertaken in 1993–94 in the greater Athens area were compared with data collected around 1994 in the same region, in the context of the Greek segment of the European Prospective Investigation on Cancer and Nutrition study. In Norway, data from the HBS carried out in 1992, 1993 and 1994 were compared with the NORKOST study conducted in 1993–94. In the United Kingdom, data from four HBSs carried out in 1985, 1986, 1987 and 1988 were compared with the National Dietary and Nutritional Survey of British adults conducted in 1987–88.

INS-generated data were converted into ‘HBS-like’ estimates with the application of yield factors for weight changes during cooking, recipe-based calculations and edible proportion coefficients taking into account weight changes during the food preparation. The ‘HBS-like’ estimates thus obtained were compared with the original HBS values, after applying an adjustment factor for food spoiled or given to pets.

The methodological considerations overviewed in the present paper indicate that a number of issues need to be taken into account before a proper comparison of the dietary data collected through surveys implemented with varied methodologies is carried out.

To describe a cost-efficient method for estimating energy and nutrient availability using household budget survey (HBS) data.

Four different approaches were tested and the results were compared with published nutrient intake data. The selected method was exemplarily applied in German and Greek data.

Germany, 1998; Greece, 1998/99.

Nationally representative HBSs.

Comparisons showed that HBS-based estimates were generally close to intake data when results were presented as contributions to daily energy intake. Daily energy and protein availabilities were similar in Germany and Greece. Differences were observed in the availability of carbohydrates (German households reported a 5 percentage points higher contribution to daily energy availability) and lipids (Greek households recorded higher values for total fat, but lower values for saturated fat). Meat, added lipids and potatoes were important energy suppliers in Germany, whereas in Greece the first three energy suppliers were added lipids, cereals and meat. In both countries, meat, cereals, milk and cheese were important protein sources and cereals, potatoes, fruits and nuts contributed more than 60% of the daily carbohydrate availability. Added lipids were the major source of fat in the daily diet of both countries, but their contribution amounted to less than one-third in Germany and two-thirds in Greece.

National HBS data can be used for monitoring and comparing nutrient availability among representative population samples of different countries. The ground is set for the development of a harmonised food composition table to be applied to HBS food data at international level.