Tillage regimes can influence weed population dynamics and, consequently, the choice of appropriate weed management practices. Studies were conducted in 2016 and 2017 in a long-term (36-yr) grain sorghum [Sorghum bicolor (L.) Moench ssp. bicolor] experiment at Texas A&M University, College Station, to determine the impact of long-term no-till (NT) and conventional till (CT) systems on weed species dynamics. Higher densities of johnsongrass [Sorghum halepense (L.) Pers.], prostrate spurge [Chamaesyce humistrata (Engelm. ex A. Gray) Small], waterhemp [Amaranthus tuberculatus (Moq.) Sauer], and henbit (Lamium amplexicaule L.) were recorded in the NT system compared with the CT system. Further, the NT system showed greater weed diversity (Shannon-Wiener index, H = 0.8) and species richness (S = 6.2), compared with the CT system (H = 0.6, S = 4.2). Seedling emergence of some dominant weed species was also delayed in the NT system. In the CT system, 50% emergence of S. halepense (8.5 C base temperature) and waterhemp (10 C base temperature) occurred at 59 and 63 growing degree days (GDD), respectively, whereas 68 and 75 GDD, respectively, were required in the NT system. Further, a greater proportion (61%) of the viable seedbank was present at the top 5 cm of the soil in the NT system compared with the CT system (46%). Overall, findings from this 36-yr-long tillage experiment have revealed that the NT system had greater weed densities (especially of the perennial weed S. halepense) and a high proportion of weed seeds (particularly small-seeded annuals) on the topsoil layer, corroborating some earlier reports that were based on short-term investigations. Findings indicate that growers transitioning to NT systems should be mindful of potential shifts in weed species dominance and develop appropriate management tactics.

Dwarf amaranth (Amaranthus macrocarpus Benth.) is a problematic broadleaf weed in many crops in Australia; however, no information is available on the germination ecology of this species. Seeds from two populations of this species were collected from Hillston, NSW, Australia (D-P-01), and Yandilla, QLD, Australia (D-P-02). Seeds were germinated at a range of constant (20 to 45 C) and alternating temperatures (30/20, 35/25, 40/30, and 45/35 C day/night). For the constant temperature treatments, the highest germination occurred at 35 C for D-P-01 (89%) and D-P-02 (82%). Germination was higher at the alternating day/night temperature of 40/30 C for both populations D-P-01 (91%) and D-P-02 (85%). Seed germination of both populations was stimulated by light, which indicates a great amount of emergence of A. macrocarpus can occur on bare ground such as crop seed beds. Results also revealed that this species tolerates a moderate level of salinity and can germinate in slightly alkaline soil conditions. The emergence of this species was highest (47%) for the seed buried at 0.5-cm depth in grey cracking alkaline soil compared with seed buried at the same depth in acidic red soils. These results suggest that soil inversion by tillage to bury weed seeds below their maximum emergence depth could serve as an important tool for managing A. macrocarpus. The results from this study will help in developing more sustainable and effective integrated weed management tactics for the control of this weed and weeds with similar responses in summer cropping systems.

Giant chickweed [Myosoton aquaticum (L.) Moench], a troublesome broadleaf weed species, is widespread in winter wheat (Triticum aestivum L.) fields in China. However, limited information is available on its germination and seedling emergence ecology. Thus, three M. aquaticum populations (JS, HN, and AH) from different geographic regions were studied under laboratory conditions to determine the effects of different environmental factors on germination or seedling emergence. The seeds germinated at a relatively wide constant temperature range of 5 to 25 C; however, the optimal temperature for germination varied among the populations. Compared with constant temperatures, fluctuating temperatures with the same mean significantly improved the final germination of all populations. Light was not required for germination. The seeds germinated under a wide pH range of 3 to 10, and the optimum pH was 6 to 7, with a final germination percentage of 81% to 95%. The seeds of all populations showed similar sensitivities to osmotic potential and similar high tolerances of saline conditions. The seedling emergence of all populations decreased with increasing burial depth, and no emergence was observed when the seeds were buried more than 3 cm, but the AH population showed higher sensitivity to burial depth than the others. The results generated from this study will contribute to the development of integrated M. aquaticum management strategies for winter wheat fields in China, and deep plowing and late sowing of autumn-sown wheat are suggested for managing M. aquaticum, as it showed lower germination at a low temperature and under relatively deep burial.

Common lambsquarters (Chenopodium album L.) is one of the most troublesome weeds in soybean [Glycine max (L.) Merr.] and corn (Zea mays L.) fields in northeast China. In 2017, a C. album population that survived imazethapyr at the recommended field rate was collected from a soybean field in Heilongjiang Province in China. Experiments were conducted to determine the basis of resistance to imazethapyr and investigate the herbicide-resistance pattern in C. album. Dose–response tests showed that the resistant population (R) displayed high resistance to imazethapyr (20-fold) compared with the susceptible population (S). An in vitro acetolactate synthase (ALS) activity assay indicated that the ALS of the R population was resistant to imazethapyr compared with the ALS of the S population. Sequence analysis of the ALS gene revealed that the GCA was replaced by ACA at amino acid position 122, which resulted in an alanine to threonine substitution (Ala-122-Thr) in the R population. The R population displayed cross-resistance to thifensulfuron-methyl and flumetsulam but susceptibility to bispyribac-sodium, flucarbazone, glyphosate, mesotrione, and fomesafen. These results confirmed that the basis of imazethapyr resistance in C. album was conferred by the Ala-122-Thr substitution in the ALS enzyme. This is the first report of the target-site basis of ALS-inhibiting herbicide resistance in C. album.

Glyphosate is easily translocated from shoots to roots and released into the rhizosphere. The objective of this study was to clarify the influence of glyphosate residues in the root tissue of glyphosate-treated weeds on wheat (Triticum aestivum L.) growth and shikimate accumulation. Foliar application to 5-leaf downy brome (Bromus tectorum L.) planted in sandy loam soil reduced wheat (‘Tubbs 06’) shoot fresh weight by 37% to 46% compared with the control when seeds were planted 0 and 1 d after applications. With Italian ryegrass [Lolium perenne L. ssp. multiflorum (Lam.) Husnot], wheat shoot fresh weight was inhibited by 20% to 34% compared with the control at 0, 1, 3, and 5 d after applications to 1.5- and 5-leaf-stage plants. Using a different wheat cultivar (‘Stephens’), shoot fresh weight was inhibited by 19% to 43% when seeds were planted 0 d after glyphosate applications to 1.5-, 2-, and 5-leaf-stage B. tectorum and L. perenne planted in sandy loam soil compared with control. In contrast, some studies using treated L. perenne and B. tectorum planted in clay loam soil resulted in increases in wheat shoot fresh weight. Lolium perenne planted in water-saturated sandy loam soil showed no differences in either shoot or root fresh weight or shikimate accumulation in shoots or roots. Compared with the control plants, shikimate accumulation in roots increased 51- to 59-fold in wheat planted in sandy loam soil that previously contained B. tectorum and 13- to 49-fold in soil that previously contained L. perenne. In both studies, glyphosate was applied at the 1.5-leaf stage, and wheat seeds were sown 0, 1, and 3 d after glyphosate applications. Thus, plant damage caused by glyphosate was associated with increased shikimate accumulation in the root tissue. Overall, crop damage caused by glyphosate residue to target plants was strongly influenced by soil type, soil water conditions, glyphosate sensitivity, target weed species identity, and weed densities.

Bromacil was introduced at the beginning of the 1960s for PRE and early POST control of grasses and broadleaf weeds, particularly in citrus (Rutaceae spp.) orchards and pineapple [Ananas comosus (L.) Merr.] plantations as well as in noncultivated areas. Both the acidic form of bromacil and its lithium salt are highly soluble in water; the herbicide is moderately to highly persistent in the soil with a half-life from 60 d to 8 mo and is prone to percolate in the soil and reach groundwater. In Costa Rica, bromacil was registered for both citrus and pineapple, but in recent years its major use has been in pineapple. An average of 60,000 kg of active bromacil per year were imported before its banning in 2017. Pineapple is grown in more than 40,000 ha; the recommended rate of bromacil was 1.6 to 3.2 kg ha−1. In a survey conducted by the National University between 2001 and 2004, bromacil was the most frequently found pesticide, at levels between 0.5 and 20 µg L−1, in water springs and wells in the pineapple-growing area of the Caribbean side of Costa Rica. Further studies conducted more recently also documented the presence of bromacil in the ground and surface water in areas where pineapple is planted. The local standard for the quality of drinking water of 2015 established maximum acceptable values of 0.1 µg L−1 and 0.5 µg L−1 for a single pesticide and for the sum of all pesticides present, respectively, but it was amended for bromacil to comply with requirements determined by the Constitutional Court to “non-detectable by method.” This paper provides an account of the scientific and administrative considerations for the banning of bromacil that occurred on May 24, 2017.

Early maturity allows weedy rice (Oryza sativa L. f. spontanea) to persist by escaping harvest in paddy fields. A shorter grain-filling period contributes to the early maturity of weedy rice. However, the differences in morphology and endosperm development in the caryopsis between weedy and cultivated rice are largely unexplored. Here, we selected four biotypes of weedy rice and associated cultivated rice (ACR; Oryza sativa) from different latitudes to conduct a common garden experiment. The endosperm development process of the caryopsis was observed by optical microscopy and electron microscopy. Endosperm cell division and starch accumulation rate during grain filling were also measured. The grain development progress in weedy rice was more rapid and earlier than that in ACR. The endosperm development progress of weedy rice was 6 to 8 d earlier than that of ACR. The endosperm cells of weedy rice cellularized earlier and more rapidly than those of ACR, and the starch grains of weedy rice were more sharply polygonal and compactly arranged than those of ACR. The active endosperm cell division period in weedy rice was 4 to 7 d shorter than that in ACR, while the active starch accumulation period of weedy rice was 2 to 8 d shorter than that of ACR. The rapid development of endosperm cells and starch grains leads to the shorter grain-filling period of weedy rice. weedy rice.

Weedy rice (Oryza sativa f. spontanea Rosh.) is an emerging weed of California rice (Oryza sativa L.) that has potential to cause large yield losses. Early detection of weedy rice in the field is ideal to effectively control and prevent the spread of this weed. However, it is difficult to differentiate weedy rice from cultivated rice during early growth stages due to the close genetic and phenotypic relatedness of cultivated rice and weedy rice. The objective of this study is to examine phenotypic variation in weedy rice biotypes from California and to identify traits that could be used to visually identify weedy rice infestations at early growth stages for effective management. Greenhouse experiments were conducted in 2017 and 2018 using five phenotypically distinct biotypes of weedy rice found in California, along with diverse cultivated, weedy, and wild rice types in a randomized complete block design. We measured variation for 13 phenotypic traits associated with weedy rice and conducted principal component analysis and factor analysis to identify important weedy traits. Most weedy rice individuals within a biotype clustered together by phenotypic similarity. Pericarp color, hull color, chlorophyll content, grain length, plant height, leaf pubescence, collar color, and leaf sheath color account for most of the observed variation. California weedy rice biotypes are phenotypically distinct from wild rice and from weedy rice from the southern United States in their combinations of seed phenotypes and vegetative characteristics. In comparison with the locally grown temperate japonica cultivars, California weedy rice tends to be taller, with lower chlorophyll content and a red pericarp. Weedy rice biotypes vary in seed shattering and seed dormancy. For weedy rice management, plant height and chlorophyll content are distinct traits that could be used to differentiate weedy rice from the majority of cultivated rice varieties in California during vegetative stages of rice growth.

The objective of this study was to determine the effect of fertilizer placement on the growth of eclipta [Eclipta prostrata (L.) L.] and evaluate its interference with container-grown ornamental plants, including Japanese boxwood (Buxus microphylla Siebold & Zucc.) and ligustrum (Ligustrum lucidum W.T. Aiton). Results indicated that subdressing reduced E. prostrata shoot weight by 28%, 42%, and 46% at depths of 2.5, 5.0, and 7.5 cm, respectively, in comparison with a topdressed fertilizer treatment (a standard industry practice). Presence of E. prostrata reduced the growth of both ornamental species. Ligustrum shoot weight decreased as subdressing depth increased, while boxwood growth was most notably reduced at the 7.5-cm depth in comparison with topdressed containers. Overall, results indicated that subdressing may be an effective weed management strategy, but subdressing depth needs to be based on initial liner size to prevent possibly delays in production time.

Wild radish (Raphanus raphanistrum L.) is a weed found globally in agricultural systems. The facultative winter annual nature of this plant and high genetic variability makes modeling its growth and phenology difficult. In the present study, R. raphanistrum natural seedbanks exhibited a biphasic pattern of emergence, with emergence peaks occurring in both fall and spring. Traditional sigmoidal models were inadequate to fit this pattern, regardless of the predictive environmental variable, and a corresponding biphasic model (sigmoidal + Weibull) was used to describe emergence based on the best parameters. Each best-fit chronological, thermal, and hydrothermal model accounted for at least 85% of the variation of the validation data. Observations on phenology progression from four cohorts were used to create a common model that described all cohorts adequately. Different phenological stages were described using chronological, thermal, hydrothermal, daylength-dependent thermal time, and daylength-dependent hydrothermal time. Integrating daylength and temperature into the models was important for predicting reproductive stages of R. raphanistrum.

Glyphosate, a widely used preplant herbicide in annual and perennial crops, was introduced to Sri Lanka in 1977. Its use has expanded since 2008 with the phase-out and ban in 2014 of paraquat. In December 2014, glyphosate use in Sri Lanka was regionally restricted. Crop protection and production in the country was severely affected in 2016 and 2017 due to the irrational decisions of the government of Sri Lanka (GoSL). Increased crop production costs due to the absence of effective and economically viable weed control techniques, low crop yields, loss of foreign exchange, and enhanced use of smuggled glyphosate products are the consequences of the glyphosate ban. The ban was imposed without a scientific basis because of sociopolitical pressure. A series of dialogues with the GoSL helped rescind the ban in 2018 for a period of 36 mo, but its use is limited to tea [Camellia sinensis (L.) Kuntz.] and rubber [Hevia brasiliensis (Willd. ex A. Juss.) Müll. Arg.]. In August 2019, the Cabinet of Ministers of the GoSL also decided to allow use of glyphosate to devitalize propagules in the floriculture industry (export oriented) and destroy coconut (Cocos nucifera L.) trees infected by Weligama coconut leaf wilt disease and sugarcane (Saccharum officinarum L.) infected by white leaf disease. However, glyphosate products with the co-formulant polyethoxylated tallow amine are still not permitted in Sri Lanka.

Diversity is key for sustainable weed management and can be achieved via both chemical and nonchemical control tactics. Genetically modified crops with two-way or three-way stacked herbicide-tolerant traits allow use of herbicide mixtures that would otherwise be phytotoxic to the crop. Early weed management (EWM) strategies promote the use of PRE herbicides with residual activity to keep the field free of weeds early in the season for successful crop establishment. To evaluate the respective sustainability and practicality of the two chemical-based management tactics (i.e., stacked traits and EWM), we used a population model of waterhemp, Amaranthus tuberculatus (Moq.) Sauer (syn. rudis), to simulate the evolution of resistance in this key weed species in midwestern U.S. soybean [Glycine max (L.) Merr.] agroecosystems. The model tested scenarios with a varying number of herbicide sites of action (SOAs), application timings (PRE and POST), and preexisting levels of resistance. Results showed that both tactics provided opportunity for controlling resistant A. tuberculatus populations. In general, each pass over the field should include at least two effective herbicide SOAs. Nevertheless, the potential evolution of cross-resistance may void the weed control programs embraced by stacked traits and diverse herbicide SOAs. Economic calculations suggested that the diversified programs could double long-term profitability when compared to the conventional system, because of improved yield and grain quality. Ultimately, the essence of a sustainable herbicide resistance management strategy is to be proactive. Although a herbicide-dominated approach to diversifying weed management has been prevalent, the increasing presence of weed populations with multiple resistance means that finding herbicides to which weed populations are still susceptible is becoming increasingly difficult, and thus the importance of reintroducing cultural and mechanical practices to support herbicides must be recognized.

Plants that release molecules affecting other plants are a source of potential bioherbicides. Silver wattle (Acacia dealbata Link), considered invasive worldwide, was found to be phytotoxic to various other plant species. Combining the search for alternative bioherbicides while reducing the spread of this invader by preventing seed formation is a good potential strategy to solve both agricultural and environmental problems. This study aimed to identify nonvolatile compounds from A. dealbata flowers and explore their phytotoxicity on the germination process and seedling and plant growth of lettuce (Lactuca sativa L.), wheat (Triticum aestivum L.), and rigid ryegrass (Lolium rigidum Gaudin). We identified methyl cinnamate and methyl anisate as potential phytotoxins in the extracts, but we used pure commercial molecules to conduct bioassays. Methyl cinnamate showed higher phytotoxicity than methyl anisate and was selected for further bioassays. Methyl cinnamate reduced guaiacol peroxidase activity by 57% and 85% in L. rigidum and lettuce, respectively, and α-amylase by 6% in L. rigidum. This compound also inhibited early stem and radicle growth of dicotyledonous lettuce (60% and 89%, respectively) and monocotyledonous L. rigidum (76% and 87%, respectively), both species having small seeds. However, wheat with a larger seed size was not affected by the phytotoxin. The results obtained indicate a potential bioherbicidal effect for methyl cinnamate, and its application might be useful in wheat crops infested by L. rigidum. We suggest that collecting A. dealbata flowers would prevent Acacia seed formation and thus play a role in invasive pest management, as well as serving as a source of potential herbicides to other species.

The storage root of alligatorweed [Alternanthera philoxeroides (Mart.) Griseb.] growing in terrestrial habitats is an important metamorphic organ for its propagation, overwintering, and spread. However, the regulatory mechanism adventitious root expansion to form storage roots is still unclear. To reveal the changes accompanying the root-swelling process, we quantified sugar, soluble protein, and phytohormone content in adventitious and storage roots. Results demonstrated that sucrose, fructose, and soluble protein increased in storage roots, whereas abscisic acid (ABA), indoleacetic acid (IAA), brassinosteroid (BR), gibberellin, jasmonic acid, and cytokinin (trans-zeatin [tZ] and isopentenyladenine [iP] and the corresponding ribosides tZR and iPR). tZ-type (tZR and tZ) content decreased, suggesting the involvement of sugars and hormones in the formation of storage roots. To further reveal the molecular basis of A. philoxeroides’s ability to form storage roots and provide candidate genes for molecular function analyses, we assembled a de novo transcriptome of A. philoxeroides based on four sets of RNA-sequencing data. According to functional annotation and expression profiling, 42 unigenes involved in sucrose synthesis and hydrolysis were identified, in addition to 70, 58, and 78 unigenes in ABA, BR, and IAA signal transduction, respectively. The quantitative reverse transcriptase polymerase chain reaction analysis revealed 21 unigenes involved in sugar metabolism and hormone signal transduction were differentially expressed during the formation of storage roots. These results revealed metabolic changes during the formation of storage roots and provide candidate genes involved in sugar and phytohormone metabolism in A. philoxeroides.

Silverleaf nightshade (Solanum elaeagnifolium Cav.) is an invasive species that has successfully spread outside its native range to become a noxious weed in 21 states in the United States and 42 countries worldwide. The successful establishment of S. elaeagnifolium outside its native habitat indicates its innate ability to adapt to a multitude of environments. Phenotypic plasticity and/or genetic adaptation have been identified as key mechanisms underlying the adaptive success of invasive species. Whereas phenotypic plasticity allows a species to buffer changes in the environment by altering its phenotypic attributes within the short term, genetic adaptation is responsible for the longer-term adaptability of plants to heterogeneous environments and is dependent on the amount of genetic variation present in the species. In this study, we screened DNA markers that are specific to tomato (Solanum lycopersicum L.) and Solanum lycopersicoides Dunal for their interspecific transferability to S. elaeagnifolium and determined the applicability of the transferable DNA markers in assessing the extent of genetic variation in populations from Lubbock, Littlefield, and Blackwell, TX. Of the 187 markers screened, 78 successfully amplified targets in S. elaeagnifolium, indicating the evolutionary conservation of marker loci across S. lycopersicum, S. lycopersicoides, and S. elaeagnifolium, despite their genetic divergence millions of years ago. Genotyping of S. elaeagnifolium populations using 50 DNA markers that consistently amplified clear bands in more than 60% of the plants identified nine polymorphic markers with 0.014 to 0.621 polymorphism information content. Genetic diversity analysis by DNA marker profiling established genetic variation among populations and within individuals of different populations. Unweighted paired group method with arithmetic mean analysis grouped the plants into six clusters that are generally defined by selection pressures unique to each collection site. Results of the study indicate the capacity of S. elaeagnifolium for genetic differentiation in response to variable selection pressures within the same geographic region.

Experiments were conducted to determine the effect of various environmental factors and burial depth on germination and seedling emergence of common beggar’s-tick [Bidens alba (L.) DC.] seeds at two different stages of afterripening. Mature B. alba seeds were stored at 4 C for 3 to 5 mo (new seed lot) and 13 to 15 mo (old seed lot) until experiment initiation. Germination exponentially decreased with increasing moisture stress. Germination rate decreased from 87 ± 2.9% to 13 ± 6.1% as osmotic potential decreased from 0 to −0.5 MPa and was completely inhibited at osmotic potentials below −0.83 MPa. A large portion of the new seeds tested positively photoblastic, but seeds that had afterripened for 1 additional year were partially desensitized to the light requirement. New and old seeds still germinated to a greater percentage in the presence of light than under continuous dark at temperatures ranging from 15 to 35 C. Both new and old seeds germinated over a range of temperatures from 5 to 35 C, but the optimum temperatures for germination was 15 to 30 C in the presence of light. Regardless of seed lot, seedling emergence was the greatest when seeds were sown at the soil surface. Seedling emergence was abruptly reduced when burial depth was 1 cm or greater. Based on these results, we conclude that shallow cultivation could effectively suppress this population of B. alba from emerging when incorporated into an integrated control strategy. The information obtained in this research identifies some important factors that facilitate the widespread presence of B. alba in Florida and may contribute to weed management programs.

Cover crops are increasingly being used for weed management, and planting them as diverse mixtures has become an increasingly popular strategy for their implementation. While ecological theory suggests that cover crop mixtures should be more weed suppressive than cover crop monocultures, few experiments have explicitly tested this for more than a single temporal niche. We assessed the effects of cover crop mixtures (5- or 6-species and 14-species mixtures) and monocultures on weed abundance (weed biomass) and weed suppression at the time of cover crop termination. Separate experiments were conducted in Madbury, NH, from 2014 to 2017 for each of three temporal cover-cropping niches: summer (spring planting–summer termination), fall (summer planting–fall termination), and spring (fall planting–subsequent spring termination). Regardless of temporal niche, mixtures were never more weed suppressive than the most weed-suppressive cover crop grown as a monoculture, and the more diverse mixture (14 species) never outperformed the less diverse mixture. Mean weed-suppression levels of the best-performing monocultures in each temporal niche ranged from 97% to 98% for buckwheat (Fagopyrum esculentum Moench) in the summer niche and forage radish (Raphanus sativus L. var. niger J. Kern.) in the fall niche, and 83% to 100% for triticale (×Triticosecale Wittm. ex A. Camus [Secale × Triticum]) in the winter–spring niche. In comparison, weed-suppression levels for the mixtures ranged from 66% to 97%, 70% to 90%, and 67% to 99% in the summer, fall, and spring niches, respectively. Stability of weed suppression, measured as the coefficient of variation, was two to six times greater in the best-performing monoculture compared with the most stable mixture, depending on the temporal niche. Results of this study suggest that when weed suppression is the sole objective, farmers are more likely to achieve better results planting the most weed-suppressive cover crop as a monoculture than a mixture.

Soybean [Glycine max (L.) Merr.] has recently become a popular rotational crop in the Canadian Northern Great Plains where herbicide-resistant (HR) soybean cultivars have been widely adopted. Intense reliance on herbicides has contributed to the development of HR weeds in soybean and other crops. Cultural weed management practices reduce the need for herbicides and lower the selection pressure for HR weed biotypes by improving the competitiveness of the crop. The effects of two row spacings, three target densities, and three cultivars on the critical weed-free period (CWFP) in soybean were evaluated as three separate experiments in southern Manitoba. In the row-spacing experiment, soybean grown in narrow rows shortened the CWFP by up to three soybean developmental stages at site-years with increased weed pressure. In the target density experiment, low-density soybean stands lengthened the CWFP by one soybean developmental stage compared with higher-density soybean stands. The effect of soybean cultivar varied among locations, yet tended to be consistent within location over the 2-yr study, suggesting that competitive ability in these soybean cultivars was linked to edaphic and/or environmental factors. Generally, the cultivar with the shortest days to maturity, which also had the shortest stature, consistently had a longer CWFP. Each of these cultural practices were effective at reducing the need for in-crop herbicide applications.

The soil weed seedbank is the source of future weed infestations. Seed predation can result in a large number of seed losses, thus contributing to weed biocontrol. Earthworms are important predators of seeds and seedlings and affect seeds and seedling survival after gut passage. A study was conducted to assess the ability of Pheretima guillelmi (Kinberg) to ingest and digest the seeds and seedlings of 15 main farmland weed species. Pheretima guillelmi ingested the seeds and seedlings of each weed species tested. The percentages of seeds and seedlings ingested were 96.7% to 100% and 21.7% to 94.2%, respectively. Pheretima guillelmi showed greater ingestion of seeds than seedlings for each species and digested the seeds and seedlings of each weed species tested to varying extents. The percentages of seeds and seedlings digested were less than 15% irrespective of the weed species. Passage through the gut of P. guillelmi affected the survival of seeds and seedlings. The germination of large crabgrass [Digitaria sanguinalis (L.) Scop.], green foxtail [Setaria viridis (L.) P. Beauv.], goosegrass [Eleusine indica (L.) Gaertn.], Chinese sprangletop [Leptochloa chinensis (L.) Nees], Malabar sprangletop [Leptochloa fusca (L.) Kunth], redroot pigweed (Amaranthus retroflexus L.), common purslane (Portulaca oleracea L.), barnyardgrass [Echinochloa crus-galli (L.) P. Beauv.], and ricefield flatsedge (Cyperus iria L.) seeds egested by P. guillelmi decreased by 46%, 49%, 47%, 25%, 38%, 26%, 32%, 13%, and 15%, respectively, compared with their respective controls. In contrast to seed ingestion, ingestion of seedlings by P. guillelmi was fatal to individuals of all weed species; no seedlings survived passage through the gut. Our results indicate that predation of weed seeds and seedlings by P. guillelmi probably depletes the soil weed seedbank and that the introduction of P. guillelmi into fields is a potential strategy for weed biocontrol in farmland.

Chinese sprangletop [Leptochloa chinensis (L.) Nees] is one grass weed severely affecting rice (Oryza sativa L.) growth in paddies in China. Cyhalofop-butyl is the main herbicide used to control grass weeds in Chinese paddy fields, especially for controlling L. chinensis; however, L. chinensis has evolved resistance to cyhalofop-butyl due to continuous and extensive application. To investigate cyhalofop-butyl resistance levels and mechanisms in L. chinensis in some of the Chinese rice areas, 66 field populations were collected and treated with cyhalofop-butyl. Of these tested populations, 10 showed a high level of resistance to cyhalofop-butyl; the 50% effective dose ranged within 108.4 to 1,443.5 g ai ha−1 with resistance index values of 9.1 to 121.8 when compared with the susceptible population. Acetyl-coenzyme A carboxylase genes (ACCase) of susceptible and all 10 resistant populations were amplified and sequenced. Among them, Ile-1781-Leu, Trp-2027-Cys, Trp-2027-Ser, and Ile-2041-Asn mutations were found in five resistant populations. No known resistance-related mutations were found in the other five resistant populations, indicating that resistance to cyhalofop-butyl in these populations was likely to be endowed by non–target site resistance mechanisms. Notably, the Ile-1781-Leu and Trp-2027-Cys substitutions have previously been reported, but this is the first report of Trp-2027-Ser and Ile-2041-Asn mutations in L. chinensis. Furthermore, three derived cleaved amplified polymorphic sequence methods were developed to rapidly detect these mutations in L. chinensis.