Weedy rice (WR) (Oryza spp.) is the most troublesome weed infesting rice paddies in Brazil. Several changes have occurred in this region regarding crop management, especially WR control based on the Clearfield® (CL) rice production system launched in 2003. This survey’s objective was to evaluate the WR infestation status by assessing the producers’ perception and the management practices used in southern Brazil after 18 yr of CL use in Brazil. Rice consultants and extension agents distributed a questionnaire to 213 producers in the Rio Grande do Sul (RS) and Santa Catarina (SC) states in the 2018 to 2019 growing season. In RS, most farms are larger than 150 ha, and farmers have adopted the CL system for more than 2 yr and use minimal or conventional tillage, permanent flooding, clomazone PRE tank-mixed with glyphosate at the rice spiking stage, and crop rotation with soybean [Glycine max (L.) Merr.] or pasture. In SC, rice farms are small, averaging from 20 to 30 ha, farmers predominantly plant pre-germinated rice and do not rotate rice with other crops, and roguing is practiced. Comparing both states, the CL system is used in 99.5% and 69.3% of the total surveyed rice areas in RS and SC, respectively. Imidazolinone-resistant WR is present in 68.4% and 26.6% of rice farms in RS and SC, respectively. Rice cultivation in Brazil is currently coexisting with WR with minimal integration of control methods. However, integrated practices can control this weed and are fundamental to the sustainability of systems based on herbicide-resistant rice cultivars.

Redroot pigweed (Amaranthus retroflexus L.) is a troublesome dicot weed species widely distributed across China. A population of A. retroflexus that survived the recommended label rate of thifensulfuron-methyl was collected from the main soybean [Glycine max (L.) Merr.] production area in China. Whole-plant dose–response assays indicated that the resistant (R) population was highly resistant (61.80-fold) to thifensulfuron-methyl compared with the susceptible (S1 and S2) populations. In vitro acetolactate synthase (ALS) activity experiments showed that the thifensulfuron-methyl I50 value for the R population was 40.17 times higher than that for the S1 population. A preliminary malathion treatment study indicated that the R population might have cytochrome P450–mediated metabolic resistance. The R population exhibited a high level of cross-resistance to representative ALS herbicides (imazethapyr, flumetsulam, and bispyribac-sodium) and multiple resistance to the commonly used protoporphyrinogen oxidase (PPO)-inhibiting herbicides lactofen and fomesafen. Two common mutations, Trp-574-Leu in ALS and Arg-128-Gly in PPO2, were identified within the R population. This study identified possible enhanced metabolism of thifensulfuron-methyl coexisting with target-site mutations in both ALS and PPO2 in a multiple-resistant A. retroflexus population.

Redroot pigweed (Amaranthus retroflexus L.) is a dominant weed in soybean [Glycine max (L.) Merr.] fields in Heilongjiang Province, China. High selective pressure caused by the extensive application of the protoporphyrinogen oxidase (PPO)-inhibiting herbicide fomesafen has caused A. retroflexus to evolve resistance to this herbicide. Two susceptible and two resistant populations (S1, S2, R1, and R2) were selected in this study to illustrate the target-site resistance mechanism in resistant A. retroflexus. Whole-plant bioassays indicated that R1 and R2 had evolved high-level resistance to fomesafen, with resistance factors of 27.0 to 27.9. Sequence alignment of the PPO gene showed an Arg-128-Gly substitution in PPX2. The basal expression differences of PPX1 and PPX2 between the S1 and R1 plants were essentially nonsignificant, whereas the basal expression of PPX2 in R2 plants was slightly lower than in S1 plants. Compared with the PPX1 gene, the PPX2 gene maintained higher expression in the resistant plants after treatment with fomesafen. An enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay showed a similar basal PPO content between the susceptible and resistant plants without treatment. After fomesafen treatment, the PPO content decreased sharply in the susceptible plants compared with the resistant plants. Furthermore, after 24 h of treatment, the resistant plants showed increased PPO content, whereas the susceptible plants had died. The PPO2 mutation resulted in high extractable PPO activity and low sensitivity to fomesafen along with changes in PPO enzyme kinetics. Although the mutant PPO2 exhibited increased Km values in the resistant plants, the Vmax values in these plants were also increased. Changes in the properties of the PPO enzyme due to an Arg-128-Gly substitution in PPX2, including changes in enzyme sensitivity and enzyme kinetics, are the target-site mechanism of resistance in A. retroflexus.

The environmental conditions under which parental plants are reared can affect the seed characteristics of the progeny. The variation originating from such maternal effects has rarely been incorporated into models of seed germination. Here, using Palmer amaranth (Amaranthus palmeri S. Watson), we examined the effects of water stress during the growth of parental plants on the progeny seed characteristics, including weight, size, final germination, and parameters of a hydrotime germination model. We grew two populations (from California and Kansas) under continuous water-deficit or well-watered conditions. In both A. palmeri populations, progeny seeds originating from water-stressed plants were heavier and larger than those from well-watered plants. Plants exposed to water stress also produced seeds that were ~30% less dormant than seeds from control plants. To test whether the maternal environment affects the parameters of a hydrotime model, progeny seeds were subject to five water potentials (0, −0.2, −0.4, −0.6, and −0.8 MPa) and incubated at 20 and 30 C; germination was monitored daily. The estimated median base water potential (Ψb(50)), that is, the water potential at which 50% of seeds cannot germinate, was consistently lower for seeds from water-stressed plants than for seeds from well-watered plants. Our results showed that A. palmeri plants experiencing drought during their growth produce seeds that are less dormant and can germinate from drier conditions—a maternal response that seems to be adaptive. These findings also call for development of germination models that incorporate the environmental conditions of both the current and past seasons to better describe the variability in germination of weed seeds.

Flixweed [Descurainia sophia (L.) Webb ex Prantl] is a notorious broadleaf weed that is widely distributed in winter wheat–growing areas of China and has evolved resistance to tribenuron-methyl mainly due to target-site resistance (TSR) mutations in acetolactate synthase (ALS). In the current research, two ALS genes were identified in tribenuron-methyl–susceptible (TS) or tribenuron-methyl–resistant (TR) D. sophia. Resistance mutations of Asp-376-Glu and Pro-197-Ala were identified on ALS1 and ALS2 isozymes in TR D. sophia, respectively. The TR D. sophia evolved 10,836.3-fold resistance to tribenuron-methyl and displayed cross-resistance to multiple ALS-inhibiting herbicides with different chemical structures. Dose response experiments and ALS activity assay indicated that two mutated ALS isozymes contributed differentially in resistance to tribenuron-methyl, flucetosulfuron, and pyribenzoxim. In addition, the relative expression level of the ALS1 gene was 2.2- and 1.6-fold higher than ALS2 genes in TR D. sophia at 1 and 7 d after tribenuron-methyl treatment, respectively. In contrast, the relative expression level of ALS1 and ALS2 in TS D. sophia is similar. This is the first research that explored different roles of ALS isozymes in resistance to ALS-inhibiting herbicides, which might provide a new perspective for the weed resistance management.

A goosegrass [Eleusine indica (L.) Gaertn.] population uncontrolled by paraquat (R) in a vegetable production field in St. Clair County, AL, was collected in summer 2019. Research was conducted to assess the level of resistance of the suspected resistant population compared with three populations with no suspected paraquat resistance (S1, S2, and S3). Visual injury at all rating dates and biomass reduction at 28 d after treatment (DAT) of S populations occurred exponentially to increasing paraquat rates. S biotypes were injured more than R at 3 DAT, with biomass recovery at 28 DAT only occurring at rates <0.28 kg ha−1. Plant death or biomass reduction did not occur for any rate at any date for R. Paraquat rates that induced 50% or 90% injury or reduced biomass 50% or 90% compared with the non-treated (I50 or I90, respectively) ranged from 10 to 124 times higher I50 for R compared with S and 54 to 116 times higher I90 for R compared with S biotypes. These data confirm a paraquat-resistant E. indica biotype in Alabama, providing additional germplasm for study of resistance to photosystem I electron-diverting (PSI-ED) resistance mechanisms.

Salinization is affecting many rice (Oryza sativa L.) areas worldwide and weed infestation, together with the occurrence of herbicide-resistant populations, is further limiting rice yield. This study aimed at evaluating the effect of water salinity on the emergence and seedling growth of five Italian barnyardgrass [Echinochloa crus-galli (L.) P. Beauv.] populations (three sensitive and two resistant to acetolactate synthase–inhibiting herbicides), three Italian weedy rice (Oryza sativa L.) populations (all sensitive to imazamox), and two rice varieties (the conventional ‘Baldo’ variety and the imazamox-tolerant ‘CL80’ one). In 2017, seeds were sown in alveolar trays filled with sand, a nutrient solution, and water with the following salt concentrations: 0, 50, 100, 150, 200, and 250 mM NaCl. Plant emergence (after 15 d), plant height, shoot and root weight, chlorophyll a, chlorophyll b, and carotenoid content were measured at 40 d after sowing. Echinochloa crus-galli showed a higher tolerance to salinity than O. sativa and rice. All species were affected more at the seedling stage than at emergence. A variable behavior of the herbicide-resistant populations was shown; one resistant E. crus-galli population was affected more by salinity and showed a lower emergence rate (about 20% against 40% emergence of the other populations at the highest salt concentration) and reduced seedling growth, while the other resistant population’s response was similar to that of the sensitive populations. The chlorophyll content increased as the salt content increased in all E. crus-galli populations. The highest emergence and growth reduction in O. sativa were recorded in the imazamox-tolerant rice. Rice and O. sativa were able to grow only up to 50 mM. Echinochloa crus-galli populations are probably favored under saline conditions, while lower infestation by O. sativa can be expected.

Weedy rice (Oryza spp.) is one of the most troublesome weeds affecting rice (Oryza sativa L.) production in many countries. Weedy rice control is difficult in rice fields, because the weed and crop are phenotypically and morphologically similar. Weedy rice can be a source of genetic diversity for cultivated rice. Thus, this study aimed to characterize the morphological diversity of weedy rice in southern Brazil. Qualitative and quantitative traits of 249 accessions from eight rice-growing mesoregions in Rio Grande do Sul (RS) and Santa Catarina (SC) states were analyzed. For each accession, 24 morphological descriptors (14 qualitative and 10 quantitative) were evaluated. All 249 accessions from RS and SC are of indica lineage. Considering all the phenotypic traits evaluated, the accessions separated into 14 distinct groups. One of the largest groups consisted of plants that were predominantly tall with green leaves, intermediate shattering, and variable flowering time. Distinct subgroups exist within larger clusters, showing discernible phenotypic diversity within the main clusters. The variability in flowering time was high (77 to 110 d after emergence), indicating high potential for flowering synchrony with rice cultivars and, consequently, gene flow. This indicates the need to remove escapes when planting herbicide-resistant rice. Thus, weedy rice populations in southern Brazil are highly diverse, and this diversity could result in variable response to weed management.

South African lovegrass (Eragrostis plana Nees) is the most important weed of native pastures in southern Brazil. Management options are limited under water-stress conditions, and glyphosate has been the main tool for control. This study compared four salts of glyphosate applied at three growth stages and determined the glyphosate tolerance level. In addition, the performance of ammonium sulfate (AMS) under two soil moisture conditions (50% and 100% of water-holding capacity) and the effect of AMS on absorption and translocation of radiolabeled [14C]glyphosate were evaluated. The potassium salt of glyphosate had the fastest activity across growth stages of E. plana, which is more vulnerable to glyphosate at the panicle initiation stage. Isopropylamine salt was the slowest-acting glyphosate formulation. Younger plants were typically more easily controlled than older plants at the full tillering stage. The addition of AMS increased the level of control of drought-stressed E. plana compared with glyphosate alone by increasing translocation out of the treated leaf and consequently increasing the concentration of glyphosate in the primary culm. These data can be used to plan an effective management program for E. plana that takes into account the developmental stage of desired pasture grass species.

The parasitic plant purple witchweed [Striga hermonthica (Delile) Benth.] poses a serious threat to cereal production in sub-Saharan Africa. Under natural infestation, the wild pearl millet [Pennisetum glaucum (L.) R. Br.] line 29Aw demonstrates resistance against the parasite, but the mechanism of its resistance is unknown. Striga resistance can be due to: (1) low induction of Striga germination (pre-attachment resistance) or (2) inhibition of parasite attachment and development (post-attachment resistance). Germination bioassays and root chamber (rhizotron) resistance-screening assays were used to determine the extent of pre- and post-attachment Striga resistance in 29Aw compared with the Striga-susceptible ‘SOSAT-C88-P10’ variety. Regarding pre-attachment resistance, 29Aw stimulated 10-fold less Striga seed germination at a maximum germination distance of 7.96 ± 2.75 mm from the host root compared with 35.94 ± 2.88 mm in SOSAT-C88-P10. Post-attachment resistance revealed 10- to 19-fold fewer and 2.5-fold shorter Striga seedlings with 28-fold less biomass growing on 29Aw compared with SOSAT-C88-P10. Microscopic analysis showed that Striga penetration in 29Aw was blocked at the endodermal and cortical levels. Post-attachment resistance in 29Aw was further supported by fewer (22%) Striga–host vascular connections in 29Aw compared with 79% in SOSAT-C88-P10. Together, these findings demonstrate that 29Aw harbors both pre- and post-attachment resistance mechanisms against S. hermonthica.

Italian ryegrass [Lolium perenne L. spp. multiflorum (Lam.) Husnot] is one of the most troublesome weeds worldwide. Lolium multiflorum is also a grass seed crop cultivated on 50,000 ha in Oregon, where both diploid and tetraploid cultivars are grown. For this work, we will refer to the species as L. multiflorum, since the common names annual ryegrass and Italian ryegrass both refer to the same species. A survey was conducted to understand the distribution and frequency of L. multiflorum and its susceptibility to selected herbicides used in its control. The herbicides selected were clethodim, glufosinate, glyphosate, mesosulfuron-methyl (mesosulfuron), paraquat, pinoxaden, pyroxsulam, quizalofop-P-ethyl (quizalofop), pronamide, flufenacet + metribuzin, and pyroxasulfone. The ploidy levels of the populations were also tested. A total of 150 fields were surveyed between 2017 and 2018, of which 75 (50%) had L. multiflorum present. Herbicide-resistant populations were documented in 88% of the 75 populations collected. The most frequent resistances were to acetyl-CoA carboxylase (ACCase), acetolactate synthase (ALS), 5-enolpyruvylshikimate-3-phosphate synthase (EPSPS) inhibitors, and combinations thereof. Multiple resistance and cross-resistance, found in 75% of the populations, were the most frequent patterns of resistance. Paraquat-resistant biotypes were confirmed in six orchard crop populations for the first time in Oregon. Herbicide resistance was spatially clustered, with most cases of resistance in the northern part of the surveyed area. Populations resistant to ALS and ACCase inhibitors were prevalent in wheat (Triticum aestivum L.) fields. Multiple resistance was positively correlated with plant density. Tetraploid feral populations were identified, but no cases of herbicide resistance were documented. This is the first survey of herbicide resistance and ploidy diversity in L. multiflorum in western Oregon. Resistant populations were present across the surveyed area, indicating that the problem is widespread.

Field experiments were conducted in the growing seasons of 2017 to 2018 and 2018 to 2019 to evaluate the competitive effects of rattail fescue [Vulpia myuros (L.) C.C. Gmel.] in winter wheat (Triticum aestivum L.) and to assess whether delayed crop sowing and increased crop density influence the emergence, competitiveness, and fecundity of V. myuros. Cumulative emergence showed the potential of V. myuros to emerge rapidly and under a wide range of climatic conditions with no effect of crop density and variable effects of sowing time between the two experiments. Grain yield and yield components were negatively affected by increasing V. myuros density. The relationship between grain yield and V. myuros density was not influenced by sowing time or by crop density, but crop–weed competition was strongly influenced by growing conditions. Due to very different weather conditions, grain yield reductions were lower in the growing season of 2017 to 2018 than in 2018 to 2019, with maximum grain yield losses of 22% and 50% in the two growing seasons, respectively. The yield components, number of crop ears per square meter, and 1,000-kernel weight were affected almost equally, reflecting that V. myuros’s competition with winter wheat occurred both early and late in the growing season. Seed production of V. myuros was suppressed by delaying sowing and increasing crop density. The impacts of delayed sowing and increasing crop density on seed production of V. myuros highlight the potential of these cultural weed control tactics in the long-term management programs of this species.

Invasive species face new selective pressures and low genetic variation caused by genetic bottlenecks and founder effects when they are introduced into novel environments. Epigenetic variation may help them to cope with these problems. Mile-a-minute (Mikania micrantha Kunth) is a highly invasive exotic weed that has seriously damaged biodiversity and agricultural ecosystems. We first adopted methylation-sensitive amplified polymorphism (MSAP) markers to investigate epigenetic variation of 21 M. micrantha populations in southern China, and further explored the effects of environmental factors on population epigenetic differentiation by correlating epigenetic and climate and soil data. Adaptive epiloci positively correlated with climate/soil variables were identified. Minimum temperature of the coldest month and mean temperature of the coldest quarter were considered as decisive factors for its distribution. Climate is presumed to play a relatively more important role than soil in shaping the adaptive epigenetic differentiation in M. micrantha. Under ongoing global warming, populations of M. micrantha are predicted to expand northward. In addition, the weed also presented higher epigenetic variation compared with genetic variation. Leaf shape variation was detected related to methylation-state change at the population level.

Mile-a-minute (Mikania micrantha Kunth) is a tropical American species and has become a worldwide invasive weed. It was first introduced to mainland China in 1983 in Yingjiang City, Dehong State, Yunnan Province. To assess the origins of populations from Dehong State, Yunnan Province, the genetic structure of 427 individuals from 11 M. micrantha populations from Yunnan, Guangxi, Hainan, and Guangdong provinces were analyzed. A total of 28 alleles were detected in 12 nuclear microsatellite loci. Genetic diversity at the population level was relatively high. An analysis of molecular variance showed that most of the variation occurred within populations (82.73%), and only 18.27% occurred among populations. The genetic differentiation coefficient (FST) was 0.183. The estimated gene flow (Nm) from FST was 1.116. The independent origins of four populations collected from Dehong State, Yunnan Province, was determined by the unweighted pair-group method with arithmetic means clustering and STRUCTURE analysis. Three gene clusters and one admixture gene cluster were found. A Mantel test of pairwise Nei’s genetic distances and pairwise geographic distances revealed no evidence for isolation by distance (r = 0.068, P = 0.343). These results suggest that the post-introduction admixture caused by multiple introductions and high gene flow might contribute to the evolutionary adaptation of M. micrantha. These results could provide a scientific basis for the management of invasive M. micrantha.

A total of 452 rice farmers from three main granary areas of Muda Agricultural Development Authority (MADA), Kemubu Agricultural Development Authority (KADA), and Integrated Agricultural Development Area Barat Laut Selangor (IADA BLS) were surveyed in 2019. The goal was to determine farmers’ knowledge of and management practices for weedy rice (Oryza spp.) as well as the adoption level of Clearfield® rice technology (CRT) in Malaysia. Most farmers (74%) were adept at recognizing weedy rice. The majority of farmers (77%) perceived transplanting and water seeding rice systems as the best options to manage weedy rice, while only 10% of the farmers adopted CRT. The low level of adoption of this technology was due to several constraints, including the high cost of the CRT package and occurrence of imidazolinone (IMI)-resistant weedy rice in their farms. Farmers from MADA and IADA BLS reported the occurrence of IMI weedy rice in their farms for more than nine planting seasons, whereas those from KADA reported having resistant weedy rice for five to six planting seasons. The main factor contributing to the evolution of IMI-resistant weedy rice was ignorance about the technology and deliberate disregard of stewardship guidelines. The survey revealed that there is a need to increase awareness about CRT through training and educational programs for proper adoption of this technology.

The presence of a soil seedbank facilitates the persistence of annual weed species in arable fields. Soil weed seedbank is replenished by many sources, but the largest one is the seeds produced by uncontrolled late-season weed escapes. The estimation of weed seed production potential from late-season escapes may allow farmers to make appropriate management decisions to minimize seedbank replenishment. The objective of this research was to evaluate the feasibility of using unmanned aerial vehicle–based RGB and multispectral imagery for estimating seed rain potential in late-season weed escapes in crop fields. Three case studies were used to capture images of weed escapes before crop harvest: common waterhemp [Amaranthus tuberculatus (Moq.) Sauer] in soybean [Glycine max (L.) Merr.], Palmer amaranth [Amaranthus palmeri (S.) Watson] in cotton (Gossypium hirsutum L.), and johnsongrass [Sorghum halepense (L.) Pers.] in soybean. Randomly selected quadrats with different density gradients of weed escapes were sampled at the time of crop maturity. High-resolution RGB and multispectral images of the experimental area were collected using drones immediately before ground sample collection. Normalized difference vegetation index (NDVI), excess green index (ExG), and canopy volume estimates derived from canopy height models were used to obtain weed biological measurements (biomass and seed production). Among the indices investigated, NDVI and ExG had very strong correlations (0.71 to 0.97) with weed biomass. No specific remote sensing variable was ideal across the three cases examined here, suggesting that a generalized remote sensing approach may not offer robust estimations and case-specific applications are imperative. Nonetheless, drone imagery is a powerful tool for estimating seed production from uncontrolled weed escapes and assisting with management decision making.

Drunken horse grass [Achnatherum inebrians (Hance) Keng] is a perennial poisonous weed in western China. A comprehensive understanding of the ecological response of A. inebrians germination to environmental factors would facilitate the formulation of better management strategies for this weed. Experiments were conducted under laboratory conditions to assess the effects of various abiotic factors, including temperature, light, water, pH, and burial depth, on the germination and seedling emergence of A. inebrians. The seeds germinated at constant temperatures of 15, 20, 25, 30, and 35 C and in alternating-temperature regimes of 15/5, 20/10, 25/15, 30/20, 35/25, and 40/30 C, and the germination percentages under constant and alternating temperatures ranged from 51% to 94% and 15% to 93%, respectively. Maximum germination occurred at a constant temperature of 25 C, and germination was prevented at 45/35 C. Light did not appear to affect germination. The germination percentage of seeds was more than 75% in the pH range of 5 to 10, with the highest germination percentage at pH 6. The seeds germinated at osmotic potentials of 0 MPa to −1.0 MPa, but decreasing osmotic potential inhibited germination, with no germination at −1.2MPa. After 21 d of low osmotic stress, the seeds that did not germinate after rehydration had not lost their vitality. The seedling emergence percentage was highest (90%) when seeds were buried at 1 cm, but declined with increasing burial depth, with no emergence at 9 cm. Deep tillage may be effective in limiting the germination and emergence of this species. The results of this study provide useful information on the conditions necessary for A. inebrians germination and provide a theoretical basis for science-based prediction, prevention, and control of this species.

Ethiopian mustard (Brassica carinata A. Braun) is a biofuel crop recently introduced in the southeastern United States. For this crop to be successful, integrated weed management strategies that complement its rotation with summer cash crops must be developed. The objectives of this research were to evaluate the effect of previous season summer crops on winter weed emergence patterns during Ethiopian mustard growing season and to assess the impact of planting Ethiopian mustard on the emergence patterns of summer weed species. Gompertz models were fit to winter and summer weed emergence patterns. All models represented more than 80% of the variation, with root mean-square error values less than 0.20. The emergence pattern for winter weed species was best described using growing degree-day accumulation, and this model can be utilized for implementing weed control strategies at the critical Ethiopian mustard growth stages. The results also showed that summer weeds can emerge during the winter in northern Florida but do not survive frost damage, which might create off-season seedbank reductions before the summer crop growing season.

Weedy rice (Oryza sativa L.) is a troublesome rice (Oryza sativa L.) weed in Italy and in many other rice areas. The objective of this study was to correlate the O. sativa infestation level in northern Italy, the main European rice-growing area, with agricultural practices adopted by farmers by using data obtained from a farmer survey. In 2018 to 2019, a survey was carried out on 98 rice farms chosen to ensure different sizes, different cultivation practices, and variable degrees of O. sativa infestation. The following information was acquired: farm size; area cultivated with Clearfield® varieties; the most-adopted agronomic practices (type of tillage, crop rotation, type of sowing, water management, origin of seeds, adoption of stale seedbed, use of imazamox, presence of O. sativa resistant to imazamox); and level of O. sativa infestation: low (≤5 plants m−2), medium (>5 to 20 plants m−2), and high (>20 plants m−2). The data were analyzed through descriptive statistics and ordinal logistic regression to determine which agronomic practices influenced the level of O. sativa infestation. Farm clustering was also determined through two-step cluster analysis. Rice was cultivated as a monocrop and mainly sown in water, using purchased seeds, in plowed fields. More than half of the farms used the stale seedbed practice, and 63% adopted Clearfield® varieties, while about 45% of the farms reported imazamox-resistant O. sativa. The ordinal logistic regression underlined that use of a stale seedbed was correlated with the infestation level of O. sativa, and the two-step cluster analysis showed that the farms were mainly grouped based on the use of this technique. Most of the farms that used a stale seedbed had higher O. sativa infestation than those that did not use it, meaning that this practice was mainly applied in zones where O. sativa infestations were more serious.

The germinability of buried seeds changes with time, and the direction and periodicity of these changes differ among plant species. In 116 abundant dicotyledonous herb species, we investigated the changes in seed germinability that occurred during the 2-yr period following burial in the soil. We aimed to establish differences between seeds collected in “anthropogenic” (ruderal, arable land) and “wild” (grassland, forest) habitats. The seeds were buried in a field 1 mo after collection, exhumed at regular intervals, and germinated at 25 C. During the 2-yr study period, four categories of species-specific patterns of germinability changes were found: seeds demonstrating seasonal dormancy/nondormancy cycles (31 species); seeds germinating only in the first season after burial (16 species); seeds germinating steadily (38 species); and seeds whose germinability changed gradually, with increasing (7 species) or decreasing (18 species) germinability. The seeds of 6 species did not germinate at all. We found no significant difference in the frequency of these categories between species typical for anthropogenic and wild habitats. The cause for this result may be dramatic human influences (changes of agricultural practices), the pressure of which impedes the development of floras specific for certain habitats, as distinguished by the frequency of species with particular patterns of seed germinability. These frequencies varied among taxa with the growth form, seed mass, and flowering phenology of species.