The scaling of complementary metal oxide semiconductor (CMOS) transistors has led to the silicon dioxide layer used as a gate dielectric becoming so thin (1.4 nm) that its leakage current is too large. It is necessary to replace the SiO2 with a physically thicker layer of oxides of higher dielectric constant (κ) or ‘high K’ gate oxides such as hafnium oxide and hafnium silicate. Little was known about such oxides, and it was soon found that in many respects they have inferior electronic properties to SiO2, such as a tendency to crystallise and a high concentration of electronic defects. Intensive research is underway to develop these oxides into new high quality electronic materials. This review covers the choice of oxides, their structural and metallurgical behaviour, atomic diffusion, their deposition, interface structure and reactions, their electronic structure, bonding, band offsets, mobility degradation, flat band voltage shifts and electronic defects. The use of high K oxides in capacitors of dynamic random access memories is also covered.

This paper is a state of the art of the understanding on the physics of homogeneous dielectric barrier discharges at atmospheric pressure. It is based on the analysis of present and previous work about the behavior of these discharges and the conditions to get them. Mechanisms controlling the homogeneity during gas breakdown and discharge development are successively discussed. The breakdown has to be a Townsend one, the ionization has to be slow enough to avoid a large avalanche development. During the breakdown, the discharge homogeneity is related to the ratio of the secondary emission at the cathode (γ coefficient) on the ionization in the gas bulk (α coefficient). Higher is this ratio, higher is the pressure × gas gap product (Pd) value for which a Townsend breakdown is obtained. Among the phenomena enhancing the secondary emission there is the negative charge of the dielectric on the cathode surface, the trapping of ions in the gas and the existence of excited state having a long lifetime compared to the time between two consecutive discharges. The first phenomenon is always present when the electrodes are covered by a solid dielectric, the second one is related to the formation of a positive column and the third one is specific of the gas. During the discharge development, the homogeneity is mainly controlled by the voltage or the current imposed by the electrical circuit/electrode configuration and by the gas ability to be slowly ionized. Larger is the contribution of a multiple step ionization process like Penning ionization, higher will be the working domain of the discharge. A decrease of the gas voltage during the discharge development is a solution to enhance the contribution of this process. After 20 years of research a lot of mechanisms have been understood however there is still open questions like the nature of the Inhibited homogeneous DBD, surface energy transfers, role of attachment and detachment...

A numerical scheme is presented to compute the response of a composite material to an applied field. The scheme is based onan iteration that uses a Fourier transform based projection method to compute the response of a reference material to the applied field, and a contraction mapping to relate the response of thereference material to the response of the composite material.The scheme also utilizes nested uniform grids to improve performance, and to evaluate the refinement of the grid.

An objective analysis is carried out of the matricial models representing the polarimetric properties of light and material media leading to the identification and definition of their corresponding physical quantities, using the concept of the coherency matrix. For light, cases of homogeneous and inhomogeneous wavefront are analyzed, and a model for 3D polarimetric purity is constructed. For linear passive material media, a general model is developed on the basis that any physically realizable linear transformation of Stokes vectors is equivalent to an ensemble average of passive, deterministic nondepolarizing transformations. Through this framework, the relevant physical quantities, including indices of polarimetric purity, are identified and decoupled. Some decompositions of the whole system into a set of well-defined components are considered, as well as techniques for isolating the unknown components by means of new procedures for subtracting coherency matrices. These results and methods constitute a powerful tool for analyzing and exploiting experimental and industrial polarimetry. Some particular application examples are indicated.

The kinetic modeling of low-pressure ($p\sim 1{-}10$ torr) stationary nitrogen discharges and the corresponding afterglows is reviewed. It is shown that a good description of the overall behavior of nitrogen plasmas requires a deep understanding of the coupling between different kinetics. The central role is played by ground-state vibrationally excited molecules, N2$(X\ ^1\Sigma_g^+,v)$, which have a strong influence on the shape of the electron energy distribution function, on the creation and destruction of electronically excited states, on the gas heating, dissociation and on afterglow emissions. N2$(X\ ^1\Sigma_g^+,v)$ molecules are actually the hinge ensuring a strong link between the various kinetics. The noticeable task done by electronically excited metastable molecules, in particular N2$(A\ ^3\Sigma_u^+)$ and N2$(a^\prime\ ^1\Sigma_u^-)$, is also pointed out. Besides contributing to the same phenomena as vibrationally excited molecules, these electronic metastable states play also a categorical role in ionization. Furthermore, vibrationally excited molecules in high v levels are in the origin of the peaks observed in the flowing afterglow for the concentrations of several species, such as N2$(A\ ^3\Sigma_g^+)$, N2$(B\ ^3\Pi_g)$, N2+$(B\ ^2\Sigma_u^+)$ and electrons, which occur downstream from the discharge after a dark zone as a consequence of the V-V pumping-up mechanism.

Number of complex fluids (as slurries, drilling muds, paints and coatings, many foods, cosmetics, biofluids...) can approximately be described as concentrated dispersions of Structural Units (SUs). Due to shear forces, SUs are assumed to be approximately spherical in shape and uniform in size under steady flow conditions, so that a complex fluid can be considered as a roughly monodisperse dispersion of roughly spherical SUs (with a shear-dependent mean radius), what allows to generalize hard sphere models of monodisperse suspensions to complex fluids. A rheological model of such dispersions of SUs is based on the concept of the effective volume fraction, $\rm \phi_{eff}$ which depends on flow conditions. Indeed, in competition with particle interactions, hydrodynamic forces can modify (i) S, the number fraction of particles that all SUs contain, (ii) both SUs arrangements and their internal structure, especially the SU's compactness, φ. As a structural variable, S is governed by a kinetic equation. Through the shear-dependent kinetic rates involved in the latter, the general solution S depends on Γ, a dimensionless shear variable, leading to $\rm \phi_{eff}$(t, Γ; φ). The structural modelling is achieved by introducing this expression of $\rm \phi_{eff}$ into a well-established viscosity model of hard sphere suspensions. Using the steady state solution of the kinetic equation, Seq(Γ), allows to model non-Newtonian behaviors of complex fluids under steady shear conditions, as pseudo-plastic, plastic, dilatant ... ones. In this model, the ratio of high shear to low shear limiting viscosities appears as a key variable. Different examples of application will be discussed.

Although the risk of embrittlement of materials exposed to liquid metals has been recognized for many years, its prediction reMayns problematical insofar as the knowledge of the mechanisms involved in the phenomenon is limited. However, Liquid Metal Embrittlement (LME) is of prime interest because the risk of damage exists wherever the handling of liquid metals is required in various industrial or scientifical fields (chemical plants, power-producing systems, soldering process, ...). The interest for this phenomenon needs thus to be pursued. The present paper reviews experimental results about the occurrence of LME and the influence of different parameters, and presents a number of mechanisms which have been proposed to explain LME.

We describe the Teramobile system, a new mobile femtosecond multi-terawatt laser and detection system based on a state-of-the art CPA laser system embedded in a standard freight container, as well as a mobile detection unit allowing a characterization of the nonlinear propagation of high power laser pulses over long horizontal distances. The unique mobility feature of the whole system opens the way to previously unreachable applications for high-power laser pulses in the field of atmospheric research (lidar, laser-triggered lightning), which are also briefly reviewed.

The paper reviews a current state of the art in the in-line plasma treatment of low-cost materials and opportunities for the use of the so-called Diffuse Coplanar Surface Dielectric Barrier Discharge (DCSBD). A brief outline of physical mechanism and basic properties of DCSBD is given. The results presented on the ambient air plasma treatments of textile, paper, wood, and glass illustrate that DCSBD offers outstanding performance with extremely low energy consumption for large area, uniform surface modifications of materials under continuous process conditions.

The dynamics of gas heating in fast pulsed discharges in nitrogen-oxygen mixtures was analyzed using a state-specific plasmachemical model and an energy conservation equation. It was shown that the heating rate changes over time according to the changes of the species involved in the heating processes. An increasing dependence on time was shown. The results show that higher electron density, electric field or partial pressure of oxygen leads to a faster gas heating. However, the heating rate associated with excitation of vibrational and electronic degrees of freedom is almost independent of the value of the applied field in the studied range of fields.

A formalism is defined to describe systems composed of several electrical machines with several electrical and/or mechanical converters. So, a first classification of multi-converter multi-machine systems is proposed in order to point out their influences on the global power conversion: cost reduction, conversion quality... Three examples are presented with this specific formalism.

Ferrofluids are colloidal solutions of iron oxide magnetic nanoparticles in either a polar or no polar liquid. We present here two biological applications using maghemite (γFe2O3) ferrofluids: magnetic cell sorting and magnetocytolysis.The first application employs magnetic particles binding a biological effector, which is capable to recognize the target cells specifically. These cells become magnetic and can be sorted in a gradient of magnetic field. We describe first the various steps of the synthesis of a biocompatible ferrofluid and the grafting an effector protein onto the particles. We then describe the use of particles carrying annexin V in the separation and quantification of damaged erythrocytes in blood samples. This very sensitive technique can be used to follow the erythrocytes ageing of normal blood samples during their storage under blood bank conditions or to detect the membrane modifications that are associated with some pathologies such as malaria or Alzheimer's disease.The dependence of the magnetic susceptibility versus the frequency is a way to transform magnetic energy into thermal energy. Magnetocytolysis is the destruction of cells, carrying magnetic particles, through the action of an alternating magnetic field (about 1 MHz). We present here preliminary experiments with macrophages, which demonstrate the method's feasibility and the formation of the non-specific interactions between the cells and the magnetic particles.

A reinvestigation of the phase diagram of the Cu–In–Se system along the quasi-binarycut In2Se3–Cu2Se reveals an existence range of the chalcopyriteα-phase that is much narrower than commonly accepted. The presence of 0.1% ofNa or replacement of In by Ga at the at.% level widens the existence range of theα-phase, towards In- and Ga-rich compositions. We also investigate the interplay between phase segregation and junction formation in polycrystallineCu(In, Ga)Se2 films. Here, we attribute the band bending observed at bare surfacesof the films to a positively charged surface acting as a driving force for theformation of a Cu-poor surface defect layer via Cu-electromigration. Theelectrical properties of this defect layer are different from those found for thebulk β-phase. We suggest that Cu-depletion is self-limited at the observedIn/(In+Cu) surface composition of 0.75 because further Cu-depletion would require astructural transformation. Capacitance measurements reveal two types of junctionmetastabilities: one resulting from local defect relaxation, invoked to explain alight-induced increase of the open-circuit voltage of Cu(In, Ga)Se2 solar cells,and one due to Cu-electromigration.

High-frequency ultrasonic pulses at 36 MHz are used to measure velocity profiles in a complex fluid sheared in the Couette geometry. Our technique is based on time-domain cross-correlation of ultrasonic speckle signals backscattered by the moving medium. Post-processing of acoustic data allows us to record a velocity profile in 0.02–2 s with a spatial resolution of 40 μm over 1 mm. After a careful calibration using a Newtonian suspension, the technique is applied to a sheared lyotropic lamellar phase seeded with polystyrene spheres of diameter 3–10 μm. Time-averaged velocity profiles reveal the existence of inhomogeneous flows, with both wall slip and shear bands, in the vicinity of a shear-induced “layering” transition. Slow transient regimes and/or temporal fluctuations can also be resolved and exhibit complex spatio-temporal flow behaviors with sometimes more than two shear bands.

We present an overview of template synthesis as it applies to our nanomaterials research. This bottom-up approach is motivated by our desire to find an alternative to the big, top-down approaches to nanoscience, such as clean-rooms and X-ray lithography. Using universally available templates and materials, and very modest synthesis techniques, we have created a variety of interesting and useful structures. Starting with homogeneous ferromagnetic nanowires, we were able to study and manipulate spin-dependent transport. Next, we branched into multi-layer GMR and spin-valve structures for spintronics. As a side trip, we put carbon-encapsulated fullerene nanoparticles into nanopores for ballistic magnetoresistance studies. Carbon nanotube molecules were grown in templates by CVD self assembly. The carbon nanotubes grown using a cobalt catalyzer show spin-valve, ballistic transport, and Coulomb blockade effects. Very recently, we have started to study templated semiconductor nanorods with the amazing result that their behaviour is very similar to that of the carbon nanotubes and can be reduced to a scaling law. Essentially, the template acts as a skeleton for the nanoscale synthesis and macroscale contact of an infinite variety of materials and structures. It is our hope that by the following examples we demonstrate that high quality nanoscience research is available to everybody.

Design of integrated power systems requires prototype-less approaches. Accurate simulations are necessary for analysis and verification purposes. Simulation relies on component models and associated parameters.This paper focuses on an implementation of a physic-based analytical PIN diode model [Power Electron. 8, 342 (1993)] with the very high description language VHDL-AMS [IEEE Computer Society, IEEE Draft Standard VHDL-AMS Language Reference Manual, 1997]. The Lumped Charge (LC) concept of Linvill is employed. The state-of-art of parameter extraction methods is briefly recalled and a step-by-step extraction procedure for the model parameters is described. Due to poor agreement between simulation results and experimental data, an improvement is added to the model. Finally, our improved model is validated with a confrontation of the simulated and the experimental curves for both current and voltage at different range of the operating conditions. All this operation was made under the Free version of the “SIMPLORER©-SV 7.0” environment.

Spin-polarized low-energy electron microscopy (SPLEEM) is a technique for imaging magnetic microstructures at surfaces and in thin films. In this article, principles, advantages and limitations of SPLEEM are reviewed. Several recent studies illustrate how SPLEEM can be used to investigate spin reorientation transition phenomena, to determine magnetic domain configurations in low-dimensional structures, or to explore physics of magnetic couplings in layered systems. The work highlights the capability of the technique to reveal in situ and in real time quantitative information on micromagnetic configurations and structure-property relationships. In addition, spectroscopic reflectivity measurements with spin-polarized low-energy electron beams can be a useful tool to probe spin-dependent unoccupied band structure of magnetic materials and electronic properties of buried magnetic interfaces.

The chemical properties of the gaseous species generated in a humid airgliding arc discharge are investigated. Aqueous solutions are used as the targetsexposed to the plasma, and this allows to evidence strong acid and oxidizing effectson various solutes by means of spectrometric or potentiometric methods. The influenceof some working parameters such as the input gas flow, the distance from theelectrodes to the target or the electrode gap is examined on the chemical transformand simple experimental laws are derived. A general feature is observed for oxidationand suggests the occurrence of an auto-catalytic step in the relevant kineticmechanism.

In spite of the high potential of polymer photovoltaic (PV) cells, considerable improvement of their stability under operational conditions needs to be achieved. The few published data on the stability of such cells are devoted to accelerated indoor testing at elevated temperatures. The acceleration factor is undoubtedly dependent on the PV materials, the cell architecture and may vary with the degradation. We report preliminary results of long-term evaluation of PV performance of polymer cells under real sun operational conditions. The studied devices include three types of encapsulated polymer/fullerene cells which differed by the configuration and content of the photoactive layer: (1) bulk heterojunction of MEH-PPV:PCBM; (2) bulk heterojunction of P3HT:PCBM; (3) bilayer heterojunction P3CT-C60. The MEHPPV-PCBM cell exhibited the fastest degradation. The degradation of PV performance of the P3HT-PCBM cell was much slower while the P3CT-C60 device was found to be the most stable. Effect of restoration of I sc and V oc was found when the P3HT-PCBM and P3CT-C60 cells were kept in the dark overnight. The first I sc and V oc measurements every morning yielded the highest values compared to those during the rest of a day. While I sc recovered only partly and exhibited significant degradation during a month, V oc values recovered completely every night and showed almost no reduction on a long-term time scale.

Benefits from laser Peening have been demonstrated several times in fields like fatigue, wear or stress corrosion cracking. However, in spite of recent work on the calculation of residual stresses, very few authors have considered a finite element method (FEM) approach to predict laser-induced mechanical effect. This comes mainly from the high strain rates involved during LP (106 s−1), that necessitate the precise determination of dynamic properties, and also from the possible combination of thermal and mechanical loadings in the case of LP without protective coatings. In this paper, we aim at presenting a global approach of the problem, starting from the determination of loading conditions and dynamic yield strengths, to finish with FEM calculation of residual stress fields induced on a 12% Cr martensitic stainless steel and a 7075 aluminium alloy.