Animal bones and tortoise shells were used for divination by the Chinese royal family during the Shang Dynasty (∼16th–11th century BC), and the divination results were recorded as inscriptions on oracle bones and shells, which are very valuable cultural remains and record many important events in the Shang Dynasty period. Thus, radiocarbon dating of oracle bones was used to build a precise chronology of the late Shang Dynasty. Due to their original burial conditions and the fact that in subsequent decades the pieces were traded or archived in museums, oracle bones are expected to be contaminated with exogenous materials from the environment and the conservation process. During dating, we found that some samples were contaminated by conservation chemical reagents. The contaminated samples were purified by removing exogenous chemicals with a series of organic solvents, in a method modified from Bruhn et al. (2001). Both whole bone and gelatin samples were processed with this purification method, resulting in satisfactory improvements in dating results.

In the Great Basin of North America, big sagebrush (Artemisia tridentata Nutt.) growth rings can be used to reconstruct environmental changes with annual resolution in areas where there is otherwise little such information available. We tested the annual nature of big sagebrush wood layers using accelerator mass spectrometry (AMS) radiocarbon dating. Four cross-sections from 3 sagebrush plants were collected near Ely, Nevada, USA, and analyzed using dendrochronological methods. Ten 14C measurements were then used to trace the location of the 1963–64 “bomb spike.” Although the number of rings on each section did not exceed 60, crossdating was possible within a section and between sections. Years assigned to individual wood layers by means of crossdating aligned with their expected 14C values, matching the location of the 14C peak. This result confirmed the annual nature of growth rings formed by big sagebrush, and will facilitate the development of spatially explicit, well-replicated proxy records of environmental change, such as wildfire regimes, in Great Basin valleys.

We present our new graphite target production system, developed in the Institute of Nuclear Research of the Hungarian Academy of Sciences (ATOMKI), for accelerator mass spectrometry (AMS) radiocarbon dating measurements. The system consists of a gas handling line and a graphite target production system. Results of AMS measurements, stable isotope mass spectrometry measurements, and gravimetric/pressure yield determinations have been used to find the proper conditions for the graphitization process. We have also investigated the 14C contamination and the memory effect of the system during the graphitization processes. This paper covers the details of these experiments and a discussion of the results.

Two lacustrine sediment sequences, La Olla 1 and Laguna del Sauce Grande, on the southern coast of Buenos Aires Province, Argentina, were investigated for carbon reservoir effects, which may influence age-depth chronologies. Fruits of the submerged macrophyte Ruppia cf. maritima from the La Olla 1 sequence, and gastropod shells of Heleobia parchappii from the Laguna del Sauce Grande core, were radiocarbon dated. In addition, terrestrial plant remains and shells of living specimens were dated to assess the presence and magnitude of a reservoir effect. A reservoir age of about 800 14C yr is estimated for the aquatic plant samples of La Olla 1 for the early Holocene. The reservoir effect is attributed to the in wash of 14C-deficient bicarbonate from the surrounding sand dunes. The decay of marine organisms and salt spray are likely the main sources of 14C-deficient carbon. The magnitude of the reservoir effect is consistent with marine reservoir offsets reported for the region. The 14C measurements on shells of living and fossil specimens of Heleobia parchappii indicate the absence of a reservoir effect at Laguna del Sauce Grande, which may be due to the large size and shallow nature of the lake. This study shows how the reservoir ages of 2 close-by lakes in very similar geological settings can be largely different. These results have significant implications for the interpretation of 14C dates from lacustrine deposits in the region.

A system with several lines for the preparation of graphite targets for radiocarbon analysis has been built at the new accelerator mass spectrometry (AMS) facility in Caserta, Italy. Special attention has been paid in the design to the reduction of background contamination during sample preparation. Here, we describe the main characteristics of these preparation lines. Results of tests performed to measure 14C background levels and isotope fractionation in several blank samples with the Caserta AMS system are presented and discussed.

The modern water (both pre- and post-atmospheric nuclear testing) of most lakes has an anomalously old apparent radiocarbon age due to what is commonly referred to as the “reservoir effect.” In contrast to marine settings, this 14C-offset phenomenon is primarily caused by pre-aged carbon discharged to lakes by rivers and/or groundwater. In this paper, a 2-component box model based on the principle of 14C mass balance in lake water and in the early diagenesis zone was formulated to address the relative importance of terrestrial inputs, autochthonous production, and biogeochemical processes in the 14C reservoir of a lacustrine system. The model was tested using observed data from Lake Qinghai, the largest inland water body in China. Our inverse modeling using Markov chain Monte Carlo (MCMC) techniques yields best estimates of the δ14C of DIC in river (∼118% modern) and groundwater (∼76% modern), as well as the δ14C of DOC in river water (∼70% modern) during the post-bomb era. Assuming that these parameters remain constant over time, our modeling indicates that both the DIC and DOC pool of this lake have reservoir ages of about 1500 yr for the pre-bomb era, generally consistent with estimates obtained by extrapolation of the age-depth models of 2 sediment cores to the sediment surface.

Dates obtained from the collagen of 5 mammals from the fossil deposits of Samwel Cave, Shasta County, California, USA, show emplacement during the last glacial maximum. These dates support the assignment of the fauna to the late Pleistocene. The Samwel Cave deposits currently do not appear to be stratified.

Previous work has suggested that seasonal and interannual upwelling of deep, cold, radiocarbon-depleted waters from the South Atlantic has caused variations in the reservoir effect (R) through time along the southern coast of Brazil. This work aims to examine the possible upwelling influence on the paleoreservoir age of Brazilian surficial coastal waters based on paired terrestrial/marine samples obtained from archaeological remains. On the Brazilian coast, there are hundreds of shell middens built up by an ancient culture that lived between 6500 to 1500 yr ago, but there are few shell middens located on open-coast sites with a known upwelling influence. Three archaeological sites located in a large headland in Arraial do Cabo and Una de Cabo Frio on the southeastern coast of Brazil, with open-ocean conditions and a well-known strong and large upwelling of the Malvinas/Falkland current, were chosen for this study. The 14C age differences between carbonized seed and marine samples varied from 281 ± 44 to 1083 ± 51 14C yr. There are also significant age differences between carbonized seed samples (977 14C yr) and marine samples (200 and 228 14C yr) from the same archaeological layer that cannot be explained by a reservoir effect or an old-wood effect for charcoal. Therefore, the present data from the southeastern Brazilian coast are inconclusive for identifying an upwelling effect on R. To do so, it would be necessary to more precisely define the present–pre-bomb R in upwelling regions, and to analyze paired marine/terrestrial samples that are contemporaneous beyond doubt.

The problem of a hiatus at about 6100–5300 BP (about 4900–4200 cal BC) in the prehistoric chronology of the Cis-Baikal region in Siberia is discussed. Based on a critical evaluation of existing evidence, there was no discontinuity found in the cultural sequence between the Kitoi and Serovo/Glazkovo complexes of the Neolithic, and the proposed “hiatus” may be an artifact based on underestimation of solid data. Conventional 14C dates are presented that were generated in the 1980s to early 2000s for Cis-Baikal prehistoric burial grounds, and were later dated by the accelerator mass spectrometry (AMS).

Accelerator mass spectrometry (AMS) radiocarbon measurements of organic samples require combustion to obtain CO2 for graphitization. Furthermore, determination of δ13C values is required in order to correct the 14C age due to carbon isotope fractionation effects. δ13C analysis is commonly carried out by stable isotope mass spectrometry because most applications demand high-precision δ13C values in addition to the requirements of 14C dating. A simplifying step is therefore to combine the combustion for stable isotope analysis with cryogenic trapping of CO2 for AMS graphite targets. Presented here is a simple CO2 trapping device based on a modified Gilson 220XL sampling (manifold) robot coupled to the inlet manifold system of a GV Instruments IsoPrime stable isotope mass spectrometer. The system is capable of batch combustion and analysis of up to 40 samples and is under full computer control by the mass spectrometer software. All trapping parameters such as flush time prior to trapping and total trap time are adjustable through the standard software user interface. A low 14C activity of background materials and high precision and accuracy of stable isotope analysis of carbon and nitrogen are demonstrated.

We present an improved version of the continuous autoregressive (CAR) model, a Bayesian data analysis model for accelerator mass spectrometry (AMS). Measurement error is taken to be Poisson-distributed, improving the analysis for samples with only a few counts. This, in turn, enables pushing the limit of radiocarbon measurements to lower concentrations. On the computational side, machine drift is described with a vector of parameters, and hence the user can examine the probable shape of the trend. The model is compared to the conventional mean-based (MB) method, with simulated measurements representing a typical run of a modern AMS machine and a run with very old samples. In both comparisons, CAR has better precision, gives much more stable uncertainties, and is slightly more accurate. Finally, some results are given from Helsinki AMS measurements of background sample materials, with natural diamonds among them.

The effect of nitrous oxide (N2O) upon the graphitization of small (∼40 μg of carbon) CO2 samples at the ANSTO and University of California, Irvine, radiocarbon laboratories was investigated. Both laboratories produce graphite samples by reduction of CO2 over a heated iron catalyst in the presence of an excess of H2. Although there are significant differences between the methods employed at each laboratory, it was found that N2O has no effect upon the reaction at levels of up to 9.3% by volume of CO2. Further, it was systematically determined that more effective water vapor trapping resulted in faster reaction rates. Using larger amounts of the Fe catalyst generally resulted in higher yields or reaction rates (but not both). The effects of changing the type of Fe catalyst on the final yield and reaction rate were less clear.

Beginning approximately cal 1400 BC, Austronesian-speaking Lapita peoples began a colonizing migration across Oceania from the Bismarck Archipelago to western Polynesia. The first point of entry into Polynesia occurred on the island of Tongatapu in Tonga with subsequent spread northward to Samoa along a natural sailing corridor. Radiocarbon measurements from recent excavations at 4 sites in the northern Vava'u islands of Tonga provide a chronology for the final stage of this diaspora. These dates indicate that the northern expansion was almost immediate, that a paucity of Lapita sites to the north cannot be explained as a result of lag time in the settlement process, and that decorated Lapita ceramics disappeared rapidly after first landfalls.

Building directly upon a previous summary of 45 dates (Weisler 1989), this paper presents radiocarbon age determinations for 175 samples from archaeological and natural contexts and a revised culture history of Moloka'i Island, Hawai'i (cal AD 800 and 1795). Significant culture historical trends include an early settlement pattern apparently generalized with respect to ecozone; a remarkably long initial period of marine and endemic bird exploitation; strong material evidence for the concurrent intensification of subsistence economies, population increase, and the structuring of the social landscape through ritual; and links between island politics as described in oral traditions and site construction. Moreover, these results support a late chronology for the colonization of Hawai'i and demonstrate the value of spatial technology for building large chronometric databases.

The cosmogenic radionuclide 10Be is produced by cosmic-ray spallation in Earth's atmosphere. Its production rate is regulated by the geomagnetic field intensity, so that its accumulation rate in aeolian sediments can, in principle, be used to derive high-resolution records of geomagnetic field changes. However, 10Be atmospheric fallout rate also varies locally depending on rainfall rate. The accumulation rate of 10Be in sediments is further complicated by overprinting of the geomagnetic and precipitation signals by 10Be attached to remobilized dust, which fell from the atmosphere at some time in the past. Here, we demonstrate that these signals can be deconvoluted to derive both geomagnetic field intensity and paleoprecipitation records of Asian Monsoon intensity in an 80,000-yr-long 10Be record from Chinese loess. The strong similarity between our derived paleomagnetic intensity record and the SINT 200 (Guyodo and Valet 1996) and NAPIS 75 (Laj et al. 2002) stacked-marine records suggests that this method might be used to produce multimillion-yr-long records of paleomagnetic intensity from loess. This technique also reveals a new method for extracting quantitative paleoprecipitation records from continental interior regions. Our derived precipitation record is broadly similar to the speleothem δ18O-based records of paleo-Asian Monsoon intensity from Dongge (Yuan et al. 2004) and Hulu (Wang et al. 2001) caves, and suggests that the paleo-Asian Monsoon intensity may be responding to a combination of both Northern and Southern Hemisphere insolation forcing.

We present an overview of accelerator mass spectrometry (AMS) radiocarbon sample preparation and measurements, describing the technical upgrades that now allow us to routinely obtain 0.2–0.3% precision for 1-mg carbon samples. A precision of ∼1% on samples with 100 μg of carbon can also be achieved. We have also developed graphitization techniques and AMS procedures for ultra-small samples (down to 0.002 mg of carbon). Detailed time series are presented for large and small aliquots of standards such as NIST OX-I and OX-II; FIRI-C and -D; IAEA-C6, -C7 and -C8; and 14C-free samples.

The incidence of plate-boundary earthquakes across 3 prospective tectonic segments at the Alaska subduction zone (ASZ) in the late Holocene is reconstructed from geological evidence of abrupt land-level change and archaeological evidence of discontinuities in occupation of native villages. Bracketing radiocarbon ages on uplifted and down-dropped coastal deposits indicate that great earthquakes likely ruptured the plate interface in the eastern segment (Prince William Sound [PWS]) about 800, 1400, 2200–2300, 2600–2700, 3100–3200, and 3600–3700 cal BP. Evidence for an event about 1900 yr ago, and the possibility that the 2600–2700 cal BP event was a closely spaced series of 3 earthquakes, is restricted to parts of Cook Inlet. Geological evidence from the central (Kenai [KEN]) segment is fragmentary, but indicates that this segment likely ruptured about 1400 yr ago and in the triple event about 2600–2700 yr ago. The geological record from the Kodiak-Katmai (KOKA) segment at the western end of the ASZ has limited time-depth, with localized evidence for ruptures about 500, 1000, and 1300 yr ago. 14C ages and stratigraphic descriptions from 82 prehistoric villages and camps on the coast of the Gulf of Alaska reveal fluctuations in site activity that correlate with paleoseismic episodes. Hiatuses in site occupation occurred about 800, 1400, and 2200 yr ago in the PWS and KEN segments. The fragmentary older record from the KEN segment also reveals a hiatus about 2700 yr ago. The 2200–2300 and 2600–2700 cal BP events are also recorded in the KOKA segment, and the great earthquake at about 3200 cal BP may also be recorded there. This suggests that, although the PWS and KEN segments behave as a coherent unit of the Alaska megathrust, the KOKA segment is characterized by semi-independent behavior. At least 2, and perhaps as many as 4, of the last 7 prehistoric great earthquakes at this plate boundary did not propagate this far west.

Recent progress in preparation/combustion of submilligram organic samples at our laboratories is presented. Routine methods had to be modified/refined to achieve acceptable and consistent procedural blanks for organic samples smaller than 1000 μg C. A description of the process leading to a modified combustion method for smaller organic samples is given in detail. In addition to analyzing different background materials, the influence of different chemical reagents on the overall radiocarbon background level was investigated, such as carbon contamination arising from copper oxide of different purities and from different suppliers. Using the modified combustion method, small amounts of background materials and known-age standard IAEA-C5 were individually combusted to CO2. Below 1000 μg C, organic background levels follow an inverse mass dependency when combusted with the modified method, increasing from 0.13 ± 0.05 pMC up to 1.20 ± 0.04 pMC for 80 μg C. Results for a given carbon mass were lower for combustion of etched Iceland spar calcite mineral, indicating that part of the observed background of bituminous coal was probably introduced by handling the material in atmosphere prior to combustion. Using the modified combustion method, the background-corrected activity of IAEA-C5 agreed to within 2 σ of the consensus value of 23.05 pMC down to a sample mass of 55 μg C.

The brackish Lake Obuchi in Rokkasho, Japan, is adjacent to the first Japanese commercial nuclear fuel reprocessing facilities, which are now undergoing performance testing, with commercial operation scheduled to start in 2007. Preparatory surveys were made by measuring the background levels of radiocarbon for water, aquatic biota, and sediment samples using accelerator mass spectrometry (AMS) in order to study the potential effects of 14C released by the plant to the 14C concentration in aquatic samples. Concentrations of 14C in Futamata River in 2004 ranged from 102 ± 0.5 to 109 ± 0.6 pMC (average 106 ± 0.6 pMC), while 14C concentrations in brackish water from Lake Obuchi and in seawater were 89 ± 0.5 to 104 ± 0.4 pMC (average 98 ± 0.5 pMC) and 82 ± 0.6 to 102 ± 0.4 pMC (average 93 ± 0.5 pMC), respectively. The relationship between 14C concentration and salinity showed a negative correlation (r = 0.68, P < 0.01, n = 20). 14C concentration in selected aquatic biota (i.e. fish, benthos, and seagrass) from 2003 to 2004 ranged from 105 ± 0.7 to 107 ± 0.6 pMC and in zooplankton and phytoplankton was 103 ± 2.4 to 105 ± 1.7 pMC. The depth profile of 14C in 3 core sediment samples from Lake Obuchi showed maximum concentrations from 103 ± 0.5 to 106 ± 0.5 pMC at 5–20 cm depth. The vertical profile of 14C concentration in the sediment did not follow global atmospheric 14C fallout. We confirmed that the background level of 14C concentration in aquatic samples in brackish Lake Obuchi before operation of the reprocessing plant was similar to the concentration (∼106 pMC) in the recent atmosphere.

We investigated a simple, reliable radiocarbon measurement procedure for water samples using the direct absorption method for sample preparation, followed by low-level liquid scintillation spectrometry. This process has involved quantitative evaluation of the conversion steps in order to estimate the appropriate working parameters. The 14C activity of dissolved inorganic carbon (DIC) for several types of water (ranging from seawater to groundwater) has been measured, paying attention to the preparation requirements of each type of water. The main advantage of this method is the simplified sample preparation, allowing measurement of a great number of samples in less time. This method was designed for routine analysis of water samples, and it is proposed particularly for use in 14C monitoring programs of CANDU-type reactors.