The bivalves Spisula solidissima, the Atlantic surf clam, and Arctica islandica, the ocean quahog, from the continental shelf off New Jersey, contain repeating structures in their shells. By analyzing the growing shell margins in living specimens at bi-weekly (or sometimes monthly) intervals throughout two consecutive years, it was possible to define an annual cycle of shell growth increment formation in both species. The shell increments in each species are microstructurally distinct units that form over a period of several months at select seasons of the year. Each species has two alternating shell growth increments, GI I and GI II. GI I (the annual growth line of previous studies) is formed annually in the late summer-fall in S. solidissima and in the fall-early winter in A. islandica. These periods correspond to the spawning phase of the reproductive cycle in both species. No winter rings were found. The annual increments were used to determine age and growth rate in both Recent and Pleistocene specimens. They may also be useful in determining season of death. Because shell growth increments are formed in synchrony among living populations in these species, mass mortalities may be distinguished in the fossil record. Accurate age and growth rate determinations in fossils are important in many paleobiologic contexts, such as deciding between increased longevity or growth rate in cases of phyletic size increase.

Rates of modern sedimentation in various depositional settings have been compiled and adjusted for compaction for the purpose of estimating the spans of time represented in thin stratigraphic samples. Owing to discontinuous or low rates of sedimentation, it is either impossible or impractical to recover a continuous series of discrete life assemblages of fossil populations by collecting microstratigraphic samples from continuously fossiliferous intervals. Assemblages that are less time-averaged may be recovered from discontinuous records formed in depositional environments with higher rates of intermittent sedimentation, but these are isolated in time and cannot be used to observe the dynamics of local faunal history. Patterns of fossil distribution may appear similar to patterns of living populations explained by neontologic processes, but the longer time scale of even the best fossil sequences suggests the action of uniquely paleontologic processes that may be driven by environmental changes.

The longevity of genera living at the edge of the early Ordovician North American plate is related to their position on the former shelf, that is preserved in richly fossiliferous sections of Spitsbergen. Genera which endure for a long period (SO Myr or more) tend to be confined to shallow-water sites associated with algal mounds at the edge of the carbonate platform (illaenid-cheirurid community type) or deep-water sites with low oxygen concentration, and probably beneath the thermocline (olenid community type). The latter includes “conservative” forms that have survived from the Cambrian. The long ranges of the olenid community type are attributed to the adaptation of only a few genera to a highly specific, stressed environment. The endurance of the illaenid-cheirurid genera is due to the persistence of the tropical shelf-edge habitat, with high predictability of resources, to which the Ordovician forms became adapted early on. The nileid community type, which occurred between the platform edge and olenid-bearing environment, was the site of rapid generic turnover and may have been the source for subsequent recruitment into other environments. The inner shelf also had rapid generic replacement, dominated by a single family, the Bathyuridae. Rapidity of evolution in this site may be due to the spatial heterogeneity of the epeiric environment, as in the Devonian phacopids studied by Eldredge (1974).

Cameral water in the shell of the cephalopod Nautilus physically supports each septum while it is being formed; it also provides a reservoir of liquid ballast which is extracted to balance the increase in weight in seawater due to shell and tissue growth. It is not used as an aid to vertical movement. In adults, the sole function of cameral water is ballast in order to maintain Nautilus' slight weight in seawater.

Contours of whorl expansion rate (W), distance of the generating curve from the axis of coiling (D) and shape of the generating curve (S) were plotted from data on 988 Jurassic through Cretaceous ammonite species and 205 Jurassic through Tertiary nautilid species. The areas occupied by the ammonites and nautilids are largely nonoverlapping when plotted as WD and DS graphs.

The almost complete absence of overlap in Juro-Cretaceous ammonite and nautilid shell shape distributions is consistent with the view that ammonites and nautilids were dissimilar ecologically, and evolved different shell shapes in response to different adaptational needs. The terminal Cretaceous extinction of the ammonites may have opened up new opportunities for nautilid evolution during the Tertiary, because Tertiary nautilids are dominanted by moderately compressed, hydrodynamically efficient shell shapes which were rarely present among Jurassic and Cretacepus nautilids, but common among ammonites. The restriction of nautilids to a far more limited portion (compared to ammonites) of the theoretically available spectrum of planispiral shell shapes may be due in part to fabricational constraints imposed by the simple nautilid septum and septal suture. Nautilid shell shapes were limited to globular or slightly compressed to depressed shells, which are inherently strong due to pronounced shell wall curvature, and would be strengthened to only a small extent by buttressing from internal septa. Strongly depressed or compressed shell shapes, commonly evolved among ammonoids, had flattened shell regions which are inherently weak, and would be strengthened to a considerable extent by numerous thick, or strongly folded and fluted septa and septal sutures.

Based on inspection of gnawing damage done to bones of modern prey animals, sets of typical damage types or patterns are recognized for certain elements. The presence of these damage patterns suggests carnivore activity even when bones exhibit no identifiable tooth marks or other obvious sign of gnawing. Observations are made of these damage types on bones of Pleistocene and Recent North American mammals, including Bison, proboscidean, Alces, Equus, Cervus, and Rangifer. Damage to the following elements is briefly described: antlers, vertebrae, scapulae, humeri, ulnae, radii, femora, tibiae, metapodials, and innominates.

A general model of taxonomic diversity, incorporating diversity-dependent rates of origination and extinction, is constructed to examine the dynamic responses of diversity to perturbation. The model predicts that the trajectories of diversification increase and decrease are substantially different. The trajectories of diversity during disequilibrium conditions are displayed in phase diagrams to permit a simple graphical analysis of stability. A positive displacement of diversity from equilibrium results in a rapid decline in diversity and may involve an initial overshoot of the equilibrium condition. A negative displacement of equal magnitude results in a gradual increase in diversity. The model is expressed as a nonlinear difference equation to incorporate intrinsically a delay time due to the characteristic noninstantaneous response of origination and extinction. The model initially assumes a parabolic curve expressing total taxon origination rate as a function of diversity. A second model, constructed assuming a sigmoidal total taxon origination rate derived from considerations of allopatric speciation, enhances the asymmetry of the diversity response. The delayed recovery of the Triassic fauna is shown to be characteristic of return to equilibrium from an undersaturated condition, whereas the more rapid “catastrophic” decline in the Late Permian fauna is shown to be characteristic of return to equilibrium from the oversaturated condition. It is proposed, although not assumed, that perturbation may include a degree of selectivity related to the dispersal abilities of organisms, thereby enhancing the observed asymmetry.

Barnacles living along rocky shores provide the classic example of competitive dominance in the marine ecosystem: by means of firm attachment and rapid growth, balanoid barnacles commonly undercut and overgrow the genus Chthamalus, which is thereby restricted to the upper fringe of the intertidal zone, where balanoids are physiologically incapable of living. Today, after perhaps less than 50 Myr of evolution, balanoid barnacles are in the midst of rampant adaptive radiation, being represented by about 273 species, of which about half are free-living species of intertidal or shallow subtidal habitats. Chthamaloid barnacles, in contrast, are on the decline, having originated at least 70 Myr ago but today comprising only about 53 living species, approximately 40 of which occupy the uppermost intertidal. The remainder persist as localized, relict, and often disjunct populations. Through competitive exclusion, balanoid barnacles have apparently caused the ecological restriction and decline of the chthamaloids. The balanoids have an advanced feeding mechanism, but the most important adaptive breakthrough leading to their competitive success was probably the origin of a tubiferous wall structure, which affords rapid skeletal growth for the efficient monopolization of free space and for the destruction of chthamaloids.

It is often assumed that, if a few species are introduced into a relatively empty environment, the subsequent diversification will take the form of a logistic growth curve, rising to an equilibrium level of species richness. The diversifications of taxa in higher categories commonly resemble logistic curves, although there are no well-defined theoretical bases for such a resemblance.

A model of diversification of taxa in higher categories is based on the notion that many taxa originate rapidly. Relatively small changes leading to new species occur at a high frequency, while larger changes leading to progressively higher taxa occur with progressive rarity. During diversification in an empty environment, few large changes will occur before the environment is filled. The rate of filling, relative to the rate of production of higher taxa, determines the richness of taxa in higher categories and gives the diversification curves a logistic appearance although the maximum level achieved is not an equilibrium. Subsequently, opportunities for diversification will generally lead only to the appearance of taxa in progressively lower categories.

Geographic distribution, species duration, and population size of 41 bivalve species which coexisted during the uppermost biozone (Sciponoceras gracile zone) of the Cenomanian were measured. Average species duration and correlation between geographic distribution, species duration, and population size were computed for five groups: total, infaunal, epifaunal, cemented epifaunal, and uncemented epifaunal bivalves.

Average species duration for all bivalves is less than 2 Myr. Infaunal bivalves averaged slightly higher, epifaunal slightly lower. Positive correlation was measured between species duration and geographic distribution for all five groups and statistical significance of the relationships was demonstrated for all but infaunal forms. In general no correlation was found between species duration and population size, and between population size and geographic distribution with the following exceptions: species duration and population size were significantly correlated for infaunal bivalves and uncemented epifaunal bivalves, and population size and geographic distribution were correlated for uncemented bivalves. Because these 41 fossil species coexisted at the same time and were distributed in the same space, differences in the relationships of species duration, geographic distribution and population among the various life habits indicate differences in ecological strategy and the evolutionary consequences of that difference.

In a hyperbaric chamber, a living mature specimen of Nautilus pompilius withstood a hydrostatic pressure of 8.05 MPa (80.5 kg/cm2) equivalent to 785 m deep in the sea. Thereafter it was killed instantly by implosion of the shell. Before implosion, the animal reacted physiologically to increasing pressure. Therefore, the depth of 785 m can be assigned the depth limit of N. pompilius. The result bears on critical interpretations on the paleoecology and paleobiology of extinct nautiloids and ammonoids with similar shells.

Two types of predation (shell breakage at the lip by calappid crabs and drilling by gastropods) were studied in more than 6000 Recent and 1500 fossil terebrid gastropods. The occurrence of lip-peeling was assessed by the frequency of shell repair, defined as the number of repaired injuries divided by the total number of shells in a sample. This frequency is interpreted as a measure of the demonstrated importance of the shell as a protective device against peeling. In the Recent fauna, frequencies of repair are highest in the tropical Indo-West-Pacific, intermediate in tropical America, and lowest in warm-temperate areas. When comparisons are restricted to particular size classes, these geographical differences become blurred, especially among smaller shells. Slender, many-whorled species have significantly lower frequencies of repair than do terebrids with more compact shells. Samples of Terebra affinis from atolls have fewer repairs than do those from high islands or continental shores. Among fossils, there is no difference in repair between Paleogene and Neogene samples. In the Miocene, warm-temperate terebrids had frequencies of repair similar to those of tropical species. The frequency of repair is loosely correlated with the number of species of shell-peeling calappid crabs. Frequencies of drilling have been at high modern levels since Eocene time. Incomplete drill-holes are common in large Recent species, and suggest that the terebrid shell is well adapted to withstand attacks by naticid gastropods. The results of this study are consistent with those of architectural analyses of soft-bottom gastropod assemblages and with other studies on predation of gastropods.

Many apparent homeomorphs have been recognized among genera assigned to the Paleozoic stenolaemate bryozoan orders Trepostomata and Cryptostomata. Morphologies are evaluated to determine whether such homeomorphy should be expected, or is likely to have resulted from incomplete taxonomic analysis. Historical and constructional constraints prevalent in the phylum appear to provide ample opportunity for adaptive convergence, a conclusion supported by the occurrence of similar morphologies in distantly related post-Paleozoic bryozoans.

Cryptostomes are distinguished in part by the presence of restricted budding loci. Loci pattern is hypothesized to be the key innovation in the establishment of the clade and the pattern also is considered critical to the evolution of the relatively slender branches and short zooecia typical of cryptostomes.

Loci development does not provide a taxonomic panacea. This is because the hypothesis does not preclude convergent evolution of broadly similar restricted loci in Paleozoic non-cryptostome groups, although presumably the cryptostomes in general would have been best equipped to succeed under conditions favoring restricted loci.

Environmental conditions for the cryptostomes in general and changing life history strategies for rhabdomesoids in particular provide possible controlling factors for the evolution of these bryozoans.

Nautilus pompilius at Fiji lives abundantly to about 600 m depth while the shell implodes between 730–900 m when sunk in a cage. From this, and the average parameters of the septum, its tensile strength is calculated to 110–140 MPa. This is markedly higher than the latest value from direct tensile tests (78 MPa). In recent pressure tests by Saunders and Wehman with dry shells from the Philippines, implosion occurred at pressure equivalents to 310–680 m depth, without significant correlation with septal thickness. We attribute this excessive range and non-correlation to structural damage by postnecrotic processes. The recalculated tensile strength from their original data is 56–137 MPa; the higher values are compatible with our values for septal nacre of Nautilus and Spirula (c. 155 MPa). Septal curvature and thickness in orthocones thus remain useful guides to bathymetry.

The Lower Tertiary Gulf Coast was subjected to repeated transgressive-regressive cycles of varying rate and extent which had a marked effect on species longevities. In some neogastropods dispersal and geographic distribution played important roles in species longevities. Species with planktic larval stages that inhabited broad areas of the Gulf Coast could maintain their distributions even during regressive phases when delta building was strong. Wide distributions, free gene flow, and resistance to isolation gave planktic species an evolutionary stability that resulted in greater species longevity. Species with nonplanktic development could attain wide geographic ranges when barriers were minimized, but they were unable to maintain their distributions in the face of regressive progradation. Thus their populations were isolated, and extinction and speciation accelerated, giving them lesser evolutionary longevity. Although planktic volutids tend to be widespread, planktic fasciolariids and mitrids were often restricted in distribution and therefore probably stenotopic. If dispersal and environmental tolerance are considered as separate forces, they seem to act in combination to produce very long, very short or intermediate species longevities.

The traditional belief that vertebrae must alternate in position with the segmented body musculature (myotomes) to allow bending of the axial skeleton is evaluated in terms of the patterns of development and structure of gnathostome vertebrae. The key functional parameter allowing lateral bending of the axial skeleton is the intersegmental position of both the neural and haemal arches, not the centrum. The intersegmental position of both the centrum and arches in tetrapods is the result of a secondary association of the centrum with the primary intersegmental position of the neural and haemal arches. The pattern of vertebral ontogeny and structure in primitive gnathostomes suggests that a causal link between sclerotomic resegmentation during amniote development and the presence of intersegmental vertebrae in the adult is spurious and corroborates the hypothesis that the process of resegmentation evolved as a method of redistributing large volumes of sclerotome cells during development. Patterns of vertebral construction in lower vertebrates are related to fast-start performance and the use of the body as a hybrid oscillator during locomotion.

Stick-like bryozoans from 1 to 5 cm tall, and of varying degrees of colony robustness, are common in deposits from Ordovician through Cenozoic in age; their occurrence has been used to infer strength of bottom currents. Three species which are modern analogues of this mode of growth occur abundantly at subtidal depths near Friday Harbor, Washington; we studied one of these forms, the calcitic cyclostome Heteropora pacifica. Branch diameter was used as an indication of colony robustness because it can be measured in both living and fossil material. Branch diameter decreases significantly with depth (in collections from approximately 9, 15 and 30 m depth) at each of 4 transect localities.

At each locality, currents 6 to 10 cm above the bottom were measured continuously in water depth of ≃ 15 m, for several hours at a time. Under these conditions, the maximum sustained current through the several hour tidal cycle was 70 to 90 cm/sec at one locality, and 20 cm/sec or less at each of the other 3 localities. Suspended matter was determined at heights of 0.2, 0.5 and 1.0 m above the bottom. The amount of suspended matter 0.2 m above the bottom was 40 to 45 mg/cm2/day at the locality with the high current (depth of 15 and 30 m), and usually 5 to 10 mg/cm2/day at the localities with the low current (depth 15 and 30 m). Despite these several fold differences in current strength and suspended matter between localities, for any given depth bryozoan branch diameter does not vary. Branch breaking strength (23 MN/m2) and elastic modulus (30 GN/m2) were measured using small (.16 mm) strain gauges affixed to dry branches of Heteropora. These values are typical of carbonate skeletons of corals. Although Heteropora branch diameter (and colony robustness) decreases significantly with depth, this trend probably is unrelated to current strength.

The Upper Jurassic Morrison Formation has yielded one of the richest dinosaur faunas of the world. Morrison sediments are distributed over more than a million square kilometers in the western United States and represent a mosaic of riverine, lacustrine and floodplain environments developed on a vast alluvial plain nourished by debris from the ancestral Rocky Mountains. Plant productivity must have been reasonably high to support abundant large-bodied herbivores, but the absence of coals, scarcity of small aquatic vertebrates, the abundance of oxidized sediments, and presence of calcretes lead us to believe that water was periodically in short supply. A strongly seasonal climate may have necessitated annual large-scale movements of large herbivores, accounting in part for their remarkably broad and uniform geographic distribution. Dinosaur diversity is lower in the Morrison than in the Late Cretaceous, and taphonomic alteration is higher. Massed accumulations of thousands of bones are characteristic of the Morrison. Morrison dinosaurs were not confined to specific depositional environments but were distributed across the complete spectrum of available habitats, from lakes to dry floodplains; this type of distribution is similar to that of large terrestrial mammals such as elephants and rhinos and is different from that of hippos and crocodiles. Common Morrison taxa were Camarasaurus, Apatosaurus, Diplodocus, Allosaurus and Stegosaurus; these genera probably constituted a true dinosaur community. Stegosaurus may have been partially segregated from the other genera, and Camptosaurus more strongly so. Camarasaurus and Diplodocus were gregarious, with juveniles and subadults of the former particularly common; Apatosaurus was less abundant and more solitary in its habits. Juveniles and subadults are known for a number of dinosaurs.