In Reunion Island, insect and mite pests are significant limiting factors to the development of market crops. Several studies have been carried out on some families of pests during the last 40 years, but no comprehensive survey has been undertaken on the arthropods of vegetable crops on this island. During 1997/1998, we studied the arthropod complex on eight main families of crops, namely Solanaceae, Cucurbitaceae, Brassicaceae, Fabaceae, Liliaceae, Asteraceae, Apiaceae and Rosaceae. During a complete year of collection, we gathered 123 species of pests, including 114 species of insects and 9 of mites. We also identified a total of 128 species of beneficials, including 51 species of parasitoïds and 77 species of predators and consisting of 101 species of insects, 14 of mites and 13 of arachnids. Our data constitute the first step for the implementation of strategies for pest monitoring and integrated pest management in an important sector for the island's insular economy.

Baiting studies performed in large, medium and small hospitals in Brazil revealed the presence of 14 ant species, with up to nine recorded in one hospital. Dominant species were exotic ants, and in the large hospital, Tapinoma melanocephalum was the most prevalent. Ants were not uniformly spread through the hospitals, but tended to be found in the more critical areas, particularly in nursery, intensive care, obstetrics, neurology and dermatology units. Bacteriological studies using specific media for bacteria associated with intra-hospital infections indicated the potential for the mechanical vectoring of species of Staphylococcus, Serratia, Klebsiella, Acinetobacter, Enterobacter, Candida and Enterococcus by ants. Although T. melanocephalum did not have the highest rate of association with these bacteria, its ubiquitous occurrences resulted in the highest overall potential as a vector of these bacteria. Because of a largenumber of ant species occurring in Brazilian hospitals, ants pose a potential problem to the spread of diseases in hospitals. Because of the number of associated ant species in hospitals, the control of this potential problem is much more difficult than in registered temperate areas.

Urine from the buffalo, Syncerus caffer, a natural host of the tsetse, has been shown previously to be a potent olfactory attractant for tsetse in the field. The attractant compounds have been found to be extractable into dichloromethane. Fractionation of the extracts by liquid flash chromatography yielded four fractions one of which gave a seven-fold increase in trap catches in the field compared to the control traps. Gas Chromatographie and gas chromatography–mass spectrometric analysis of this fraction revealed the presence of seven simple phenols including phenol itself.

The effects of larval crowding on growth, development and reproductive output of the Parthenium beetle Zygogramma bicolorata Pallister were investigated. Experimental manipulations of larval densities indicated that crowding creates intraspecific competition among the larvae, which negatively affected their growth and development. Larvae at high densities grew more slowly and exhibited longer larval periods compared with those at lower densities. Best-fit curves of developmental rates against larval densities were drawn, which revealed maximum theoretical density for 95% (6 or 15 larvae/63.6 cm2) and 50% developmental rate (1.75 larvae/63.6 cm2), respectively. The reproductive potential of the beetle reared at different larval densities was also observed, but no effect of increased larval densities was observed.

Experiments were conducted to assess the effect of four plant growth regulators (PGRs), namely coumarin, kinetin, gibberellic acid (GA3) and indole-3-acetic acid (IAA), on the development of the melon fruit fly, Bactrocera cucurbitae (Coquillett) (Diptera: Tephritidae). All four compounds exerted growth-and development-inhibitory effects on the fly. Coumarin was most potent, followed by kinetin, GA3 and IAA. The first and second instars of the fly were more sensitive than the third instar. Treatment with the PGRs also prolonged the fly's developmental period, reduced percentage emergence and increased percentage of abnormal flies emerging. At the higher concentrations tested (125, 625 and 3125 µg/ml) coumarin, kinetin and GA3 caused 100% mortality in first instars.

Crude ethanol extracts (CE) of leaves of 60 plant species belonging to 32 families and 52 genera were bioassayed for toxicity to adult Tribolium confusum by spraying a 10% (w/v) concentrate under a Potter's tower. CE of eight plants had none and three had some bioactivity; 36 CE killed from 13 to 40% of the beetles. Thirteen plant extracts inflicted between 53 and 100% mortality in the following order: Azadirachta indica (53%) < Eupatorium odorantum = Gliricida sepium = Mimosa pudica (60%) < Annona reticulata = Hibiscus rosa sinensis (67%) < Cycloptis semicordata < Artocarpus altilis < Capsicum annum (90–97%) < Bontia daphnoides = Cuscuta americana = Dioscorea polygonoides = Nkotina tabacum (100%).

The use pattern of alternative host plants by Maruca vitrata was investigated in southern and central Benin. Among the wild host plants, Pterocarpus santalinoides, Pueraria phaseoloides and Centrosema pubescens were found to be key relay hosts during the long dry season, Lonchocarpus sericeus and L. cyanescens were the most important hosts during the main rainy season, while Tephrosia platycarpa was an essential relay host during the short wet season in between. Cowpea was the major cultivated host plant and can sustain M. vitrata all year round, if available. However, this pest was able to maintain high population levels exclusively on wild hosts without needing to switch to cultivated crops. The relevance of these findings and their implications for the control of M. vitrata are discussed.

Successful mass production of biocontrol agents is a prerequisite to their effective use in the field. Thus in the present study the suitability of ten aphid species of a ladybird beetle Anegleis cardoni (Weise) in terms of growth, development, survival and mortality life table attributes was assessed for the purpose of mass production. The study revealed that the developmental duration of the immature stages of A. cardoni was shortest when fed on Uroleucon compositae (Theobald), Rhopalosiphum maidis (Fitch), Hyadaphis coriandri (Das) and Myzus persicae (Sulzer) in comparison with other aphid species. Immature survival, development rate, adult weight and growth index were also highest when A. cardoni larvae were fed on these aphids, while lowest when fed on Hysteroneura setariae (Thomas) and Ceratovacuna silvestri (Takahashi). Any larva of A. cardoni did not reach adult stage when fed on Aphis nerii Boyer de Fonscolombe; therefore it may be considered as a toxic prey. Life table data revealed that the overall mortality prior to adult stage was lowest in U. compositae and highest in C. silvestri. The first instars suffered the highest mortality in comparison with other instars on all the aphid species tested. However, the life expectancy for each aphid species as prey revealed a continuous decline with the advancement of age. Thus among all the ten aphid species tested, U. compositae, R. maidis, H. coriandri and M. persicae were found equally suitable for mass production of A. cardoni.

The effect of different constant temperatures on several reproductive attributes of the Mexican beetle, Zygogramma bicolorata Pallister, was studied. Fecundity and egg viability, pre- and post-oviposition period, and age-specific fecundity were assessed at 20, 25, 27, 30 and 35 °C. Maximum fecundity and per cent egg viability were recorded at 27 °C (928 eggs and 75.6%, respectively). Pre-oviposition and post-oviposition period declined with increasing temperature up to 27 °C, then increased at temperatures beyond that. Oviposition period decreased from 92.9 to 27.5 days with temperature increment. Age-specific fecundity was also temperature dependent. Z. bicolorata is a biological control agent of the parthenium weed Parthenium hysterophorus Linnaeus, and these findings may be useful in mass rearing programmes for the natural enemy.

Essential oils of three genotypes of Tagetes minuta, six of Tagetes patula and 15 of Tagetes erecta were screened for potential fumigant and contact toxicity against three stored product beetle species, Callosobruchus maculatus (Fabricius), Sitophilus oryzae (Linnaeus) and Tribolium castaneum (Herbst). Genotype 1 of T. minuta (TM-1), genotype 2 of T. patula (TP-2) and genotype 13 of T. erecta (TE-13) were the most toxic. These three genotypes were then evaluated for adult toxicity, oviposition deterrence, and ovicidal and population reduction activities. Essential oils of genotypes TM-1 and TP-2 induced 100% adult mortality for all three insect species at dosages of 50,000 ppm and 500 μg/insect in fumigant and contact toxicity bioassays, respectively. Adults of C. maculatus and S. oryzae were highly susceptible to the essential oils of the three genotypes in both fumigant and contact toxicity bioassays. The essential oil of genotype TM-1 deterred oviposition in T. castaneum by 81% and suppressed its egg hatchability by 91% when applied at a dosage of 70,000 ppm on filter paper.

The brown cocoa mirid, Sahlbergella singularis is the most important insect pest of cocoa for field damage has been classified into three categories that include blast, stagheadedness and mirid pocket. The mirid attack predisposes the cocoa plant to secondary infection by opportunistic pathogenic fungi. This study evaluated the dieback conditions associated with mirid damage due to associated fungi from lesions on pods, twigs and pin punctures. The relationship between Phytophthora black pod infection and mirid infestation in the field was also established. The results indicated that dieback progression from the mirid lesions (8.5 mm) was significantly different (P< 0.05) from that of pin punctures (7.8 mm). Lasiodiplodia theobromae had the highest proportion of isolates from pods (33%), twigs (47%), and pin punctures (38%). Fusarium decemcellulare (Albonectria rigidiuscula) accounted for 27.8% and 31.6% from pods and twigs; however, it was not recovered from pin punctures. Other isolated pathogens were Aspergillus species and Rhizoctonia species. There was a significantly strong positive correlation coefficient of 0.74 between the mirid population and the black pod disease infection in the field. The major fruit-bearing season of cocoa witnessed an increase in mirid infestation and blackpod infection. The effect of mirid–pathogenic fungi-associated damage could be ameliorated through effective crop husbandry practices to ensure that cocoa plant tissues are not unduly exposed to biological and mechanical injuries.

Resistance mechanisms to the pod-sucking bug (PSB) Clavigralla tomentosicollis Stäl, in cowpea genotype IT86D-716, were studied in field and laboratory. Non-preference was evaluated on three cowpea varieties (IT86D-716, Moussa local and KVx396-4-5-2D) through measuring differences in population parameters and extent of damage under field and laboratory conditions. Antibiosis was evaluated based on development parameters of C. tomentosicollis when reared on pods of the aforementioned varieties. The variety IT86D-716 consistently exhibited both non-preference and antibiosis resistance mechanisms to C. tomentosicollis. A chemical analysis of the pods was conducted to identify compounds conferring antibiosis. Several compounds including cyanogenic heterosides, flavonoids, tannins and trypsin inhibitors were present in pods of IT86D-716. Evidence suggests that antibiosis due to these compounds may contribute to the resistance to PSB. In the case of antibiosis, 5-day long exposures were adequate to observe nymphal mortality. Based on this finding, a fast, reliable and low-cost screening of pods can be carried out in the laboratory for identification of lines that are C. tomentosicollis resistant.

The structure of two compounds extracted from the leaves of Vitex negundo L., their repellent activity and toxicity against three strains of Tribolium castaneum (Herbst) were elucidated. Two compounds were purified and a residual film bioassay was used to evaluate the toxicity to adult T. castaneum. Mortality was recorded 24, 48 and 72 h post-exposure to compounds. The repellency activity of methanol extract was tested by using nine concentrations. Each dose was applied on a half circle of the filter paper, keeping the other part untreated. Insects released on treated filter paper were assessed for repellency up to 5 h. Two bioactive compounds, 22,23-dihydro-α-spinasterol-β-d-glucoside and salicylic acid were isolated from the methanolic leaf extracts by column chromatography and thin-layer chromatography. Their structures were elucidated by various spectroscopic methods. Compound 22,23-dihydro-α-spinasterol-β-d-glucoside is the first report from this plant. Both compounds showed insecticidal activity and the leaf extracts caused 100% repellency in the three tested strains of T. castaneum. Both compounds showed toxicity to T. castaneum, but compound 22,23-dihydro-α-spinasterol-β-d-glucoside was more potent. Its potential future use as herbal insecticide against T. castaneum is discussed.

The predacious mites Amblyseius gossipi El-Badry and A. swirskii Athias-Henroit developed, survived and reproduced successfully on several artificial diets. The best diet consisted of 1 g yeast, 1 g milk, 30 mg cystine, 30 mg proline, 30 mg arginine, 20 mg sucrose, 50 mg glucose, 30 mg streptomycin sulphate and droplets of sorbic acid. Mean eggs/female/day by the two predators was 0.54 and 0.30 when reared on the best diet compared to 1.21 and 0.40 when fed on a natural diet, respectively. Female longevity of A. swirskii was 84.3 days, nearly twice as long as that on a natural diet Eggs showed no abnormalities; larvae fed on diets had normal development, and adults were comparable in size to individuals reared on a natural diet.

Seven phenolic compounds (phenol, 3- and 4-cresols, 3- and 4-ethylphenols, and 3- and 4-n-propylphenols) previously shown to be components of a fraction of an extract of buffalo urine which was active as a tsetse attractant, were evaluated in field experiments, individually at different concentrations, and in blends. The results indicate that 4-cresol and 3-n-propylphenol are the most important components for the of the attractancy phenolic mixture.

The aim of this study was to document what water types were most stimulatory to oviposition by the malaria mosquito, Anopheles gambiae Giles s.s. In laboratory choice tests, dishes of black cotton and red laterite soils from around Kisumu, Kenya, equally stimulated An. gambiae oviposition when saturated with water. When infused into either soil type, water from Lake Victoria was significantly more stimulatory than any other type of water or infusion tested. Water from natural An. gambiae puddle habitats, borehole water, cow dung infusion, Bermuda grass infusion and distilled water followed in declining rank order. Relative to An. gambiae puddle-habitat water and distilled water, Lake Victoria water appears to provide the strongest chemical cues for An. gambiae oviposition recorded to date. This work suggests that this important vector of human malaria may oviposit in and around Lake Victoria, as well as in its usual puddle habitats. Lake Victoria should be explored for its possible contribution to malaria mosquito populations.

Anastrepha ludens (Loew) (Diptera: Tephritidae) is an important pest of mango and citrus in Mexico. Here, we report the effect of the entomopathogenic fungus Metarhizium anisopliae (Metsch.) Sorokin strain MAAP1 on mortality and food consumption in A. ludens adults. Experiments were carried out under laboratory conditions at 26 ± 2 °C, 60 ± 5% RH and 12:12 photoperiod. To assess pathogenicity and sublethal effects, we sprayed flies with 1 × 109 conidia/ml and 1 × 106 conidia/ml solutions, respectively. Food consumption was measured by providing known amounts of food through capillary tubes to caged flies. We found that M. anisopliae was highly virulent to A. ludens, causing 92.3 ± 0.62% mortality at day 13 post-exposure. Interestingly, food consumption reduced by 17% in flies exposed to the fungus. These results support the implementation of M. anisopliae within current strategies used for the integrated pest management of A. ludens.

Parasitism rates of Bemisia tabaci (Gennadius) and searching and oviposition behaviours of its parasitoid Eretmocerus mundus Mercet were compared on two cassava varieties: a glabrous variety, Nase 4 and a hirsute variety, MM97/0245 with c. 88 leaf hairs/cm2. Parasitism was assessed after potted plants of both varieties were exposed in open fields to natural infestation by B. tabaci and its natural enemy. For the behavioural studies, naive, less than 24-h-old females were individually observed on infested cassava leaflets under a microscope for a maximum of 1 h each. The different foraging behaviours were recorded using the computer software ‘The Observer 5.0’ (Noldus Ltd, Wageningen, The Netherlands). Total per cent parasitism and parasitism by E. mundus did not differ significantly between varieties. Upon encounter with leaf hairs, the parasitoids stopped and groomed before resuming the host search. The frequency of repeat probing, host feeding and antennation after probing and host feeding were higher on the glabrous than on the hirsute variety, while the converse was observed when feeding on liquids on the leaf. The duration of host assessment, initial probing, grooming and resting on the leaf was higher on the glabrous than on the hirsute variety. Leaf hairiness at the density investigated caused some changes in the behaviour of the parasitoids, but did not have an overall effect on field parasitism. Since cassava is generally considered to have glabrous leaves and the variety MM97/0245 is one of the most hirsute varieties, we discount leaf hairiness as a factor in determining levels of parasitoid activity.

Dung beetles (Coleoptera: Scarabaeinae) mediate many ecological functions that are important to maintain the ecosystem functioning of terrestrial environments. Although a large amount of literature explores the dung beetle-mediated ecological processes, little is known about the individual contribution from distinct species. Here, we aimed to examine the intra and interspecific variations in dung burial rates performed by two roller dung beetle species (Canthon smaragdulus Fabricius, 1781 and Canthon sulcatus Castelnau, 1840). Furthermore, we evaluated the relationship between dung beetle biomass and dung burial rates. We set up a laboratorial experiment with three treatments (two males, two females, and a couple) and 10 replicates per treatment for each dung beetle species, and dung burial rates were measured after exposing 100 g of mixed pig and human excrement for 48 hours. Our results demonstrate that dung burial rates of males, females, and couples within each species do not differ. However, C. smaragdulus individuals performed a larger dung burial than C. sulcatus individuals did. In addition, we found no effect of individual biomass on the amount of dung burial on intra and interspecific levels. These findings highlight the need for further research considering that distinct species, even from the same genus, may perform different rates of ecological processes, as well as about the importance for considering the beetle biomass when measuring their ecological functions. We call for studies to fill in the knowledge gap about the individual species’ contribution to the maintenance of different dung beetle-mediated ecological processes.

Taxonomy is the starting point of any basic or applied biological research. In biological control work, the pest species, its probable area of origin, and, consequently, the location where promising natural enemies may be found, are identified. The close co-operation of taxonomists during pre- and post-release surveys of natural enemies in target areas helps to indicate the indigenous fauna present and the progress of a biological control programme. Biological control programmes should budget for appropriate taxonomie studies in areas where the local fauna is poorly known. Instructing local researchers on the correct collection, preservation, and identification of relevant indigenous and exotic species should be emphasized.