Objective: The U.K. NHS Economic Evaluation Database (EED) project is commissioned to identify papers on economic evaluations of health technologies and to disseminate their findings to NHS decision makers by means of structured abstracts that are available through a public database and the Cochrane Library. This paper discusses current issues relating to the economic aspects of producing NHS EED abstracts.

Methods: A review of NHS EED was undertaken between 1994 and 1999 to determine the methodologies adopted and issues that influence the usefulness of economic evaluations. Methods adopted to improve the quality of NHS EED abstracts are also reported.

Results: Eighty-five percent of NHS EED abstracts are cost-effectiveness analyses (CEAs), 9.3% are cost-utility analyses (CUAs), and only 1.4% are cost-benefit analyses (CBAs). Of the total abstracts, 65.9% are based on single studies, 19.5% on reviews, 3.9% on estimates of effectiveness, and 10.7% on combinations of these sources. Models are utilized in 16.7% of CEAs, 60.2% of CUAs, and 20% of CBAs. Analyses of CBA studies reveal a degree of misuse of well-established definitions. NHS EED internal control mechanisms are reported that provide a means of ensuring that abstracts are based on sound academic principles.

Conclusions: Most economic evaluations are conducted by means of CEA, followed by CUA, while CBA accounts for an extreme minority of cases. Single studies form the principal source of effectiveness data, although models are widely used, principally in CUA. The structure of NHS EED abstracts provides decision makers with the principal results and an interpretation of the relative strengths and weaknesses of economic evaluations.

It was an honor to have known and worked with Seymour Perry, MD, MACP, and to have witnessed his many accomplishments and contributions in several fields—cancer research, government administration, the development and promotion of procedures for evaluating health technologies, particularly consensus development, and leadership in fostering national and international collaboration in health technology assessment—representing a sustained effort in which both quantitative and qualitative benefits have been demonstrated.

Health technology assessment (HTA) has become increasingly important in the European Union as an aid to decision making. As agencies and programs have been established, there is increasing attention to coordination of HTA at the European level, especially considering the growing role of the European Union in public health in Europe. This series of papers describes and analyzes the situation with regard to HTA in the 15 members of the European Union, plus Switzerland. The final paper draws some conclusions, especially concerning the future involvement of the European Commission in HTA.

Objective: To explore whether more could be done to increase the implementation of health technology assessment (HTA) findings.

Methods: A literature review was undertaken to identify the main barriers to implementation, the mechanisms that influence the diffusion and use of health technologies, and evidence of the successful implementation of findings.

Results: Numerous barriers to the implementation of HTA findings exist at the public policy, health- care professional, and general public levels. Several mechanisms for influencing the use of health technologies exist, and there are some examples of findings being implemented through these mechanisms. However, there are also concerns about the aggressive implementation of findings. A balanced approach to the implementation of HTAs is required.

Conclusion: The main elements of a successful implementation strategy are: a) defining a clear policy question; b) defining a clear research question; c) making recommendations commensurate with the evidence; d) identifying the implementation mechanism; e) paying attention to incentives and disincentives; and f) clarifying the roles and responsibilities of the various parties. Further research is also required into several aspects of implementation.

Objectives: Use of complementary and alternative medicine (CAM) is growing in all Western countries. The goal of this study was to evaluate quality of randomized controlled trials (RCTs) of CAM interventions for specific diagnoses to inform clinical decision making.

Methods: MEDLINE and related databases were searched for CAM RCTs. Visual review was done of bibliographies, meta-analyses, and CAM journals. Inclusion criteria for review and scoring were blinded RCT, specified diagnosis and intervention, complete study published between January 1, 1966 and July 31, 1998 in an English-language, peer-reviewed journal. Two reviewers independently scored each study.

Results: More than 5,000 trials were found, but only 258 met all study inclusion criteria. The main cause for rejection (> 90%) was that the study was not an RCT or had no blinding. Mean score across 95 diagnosis/intervention categories was 44.7 (S.D. ± 14.3) on a 100-point scale. Ordinary least-squares regression found date of publication, biostatistician as author or consultant, published in one of five widely read English-language medical journals and diagnosis/intervention category of hypertension/relaxation as significant predictors of higher scores.

Conclusions: The overall quality of evidence for CAM RCTs is poor but improving slowly over time, about the same as that of biomedicine. Thus, most services are provided without good evidence of benefit.

The Austrian healthcare system relies mainly on physicians in private practice and on various services provided by hospitals. The social health insurance scheme is compulsory, covering 99% of the population. The system is very decentralized. While the federal state provides the framework, the nine autonomous provinces are responsible for administering health and social services. There is ongoing public discussion about centralizing the healthcare system to make it more efficient and to enforce structural reforms. Because of concerns about healthcare expenditures, in 1997 the Performance-Related Hospital Financing System (LKF), a system similar to the diagnosis-related group system, was introduced for hospitals, including a plan for large medical devices. It is too early to evaluate the success of this new system, although some effects of the LKF system that could have been anticipated, such as shortened lengths of stay and more hospitalizations, have been seen. Previously, health technologies have been almost uncontrolled in Austria. The evaluation of health technologies as an instrument to support or to control their dissemination and use or to help define policies is not institutionalized or systematically used. It seems clear that structural reforms of the Austrian healthcare system are needed. Health technology assessment should be part of such reforms.

The NHS Health Technology Assessment (HTA) Programme runs an annual process of identifying suggestions for health technology assessment. The objective of this paper is to describe and evaluate the relative importance of the different sources used by the program in 1998 to identify potential priorities. There were four different sources: a) a widespread consultation of healthcare commissioners, providers and consumers; b) research recommendations from systematic reviews; c) reconsidering previous research priorities which had not been taken forward for funding; and d) horizon scanning. Collectively, the four sources generated just over 1,100 HTA suggestions. By far the largest source of suggestions and priorities was the widespread consultation. However, the success rate of this source, in terms of being commissioned, was low. Research recommendations from systematic reviews provided the second largest source of priorities and the best success rate of all sources. Value was found from different sources for different healthcare areas.

The profusion of clinical practice guidelines has been remarked on by many (3;6;8) and ascribed to a need to address the wide geographic differences in practice documented in the last quarter century (9;10), as well as to the increasing concern with the cost of health care. The idea is that guidelines, by outlining efficient care strategies, will enhance the quality of care and reduce unnecessary or unproductive expenditures. Others hold that guidelines are simply a means of transferring the results of research from the literature to clinicians (2;5). A darker view of guidelines sees them as instruments of control of medical practice by uncaring administrators concerned solely with cost reduction (4;7).

The Belgian healthcare system has a Bismarck-type compulsory health insurance, covering almost the entire population, combined with private provision of care. Providers are public health services, independent pharmacists, independent ambulatory care professionals, and hospitals and geriatric care facilities. Healthcare responsibilities are shared between the national Ministries of Public Health and Social Affairs, and the Dutch-, French-, and German-speaking Community Ministries of Health. The national ministries are responsible for sickness and disability insurance, financing, determination of accreditation criteria for hospitals and heavy medical care units, and construction of new hospitals. The six sickness and disability insurance funds are responsible for reimbursing health service benefits and paying disability benefits. The system's strength is that care is highly accessible and responsive to patients. However, the healthcare system's size remained relatively uncontrolled until recently, there is an excess supply of certain types of care, and there is a large number of small hospitals. The national government created a legal framework to modernize the insurance system to control budgetary deficits. Measures for reducing healthcare expenditures include regulating healthcare supply, healthcare evaluation, medical practice organization, and hospital budgets. The need to control healthcare facilities and quality of care in hospitals led to formal procedures for opening hospitals, acquiring expensive medical equipment, and developing highly specialized services. Reforms in payment and regulation are being considered. Health technology assessment (HTA) has played little part in the reforms so far. Belgium has no formal national program for HTA. The future of HTA in Belgium depends on a changing perception by providers and policy makers that health care needs a stronger scientific base.

Through the use of three scenarios, this paper presents the challenges for clinical practice guidelines in the 21st century. Such challenges relate to technological developments to improve the efficiency and pace of the development process, to ensure that clinical practice guidelines are kept up to date, and to facilitate implementation of guidelines in the clinical setting. To improve and ensure the validity of the content of clinical practice guidelines, we need to address the important problem of publication bias, for which researchers, granting agencies, industry, and journal editors share responsibility. This means insisting on registration of trials at their inception, and incentives backed up by rules for funding and peer review publication that would promote behaviors to avoid publication bias. The more difficult challenges for clinical practice guidelines relate to what are referred to as attitudinal factors. To achieve optimal efficiencies in development and maintenance of clinical practice guidelines, we need to promote cooperation among various information resource providers internationally and to stress partnership over leadership. Finally, there needs to be reconciliation of the different stakeholder perspectives of the value and purpose of clinical practice guidelines so that they are used appropriately as aids to decision making and are not abused as tools for controlling clinical practice.

Objective: To estimate the cost-effectiveness (CE) of interferon beta-1b (IFNβ-1b) in slowing disability progression in persons with relapsing-remitting multiple sclerosis (RRMS).

Methods: Treatment program costs and health outcomes are modeled for cohorts of 1,000 females and 1,000 males followed 40 years from onset. Fifteen scenarios model MS natural history progression, treatment efficacy, direct treatment costs, and MS healthcare costs. A single randomized placebo-controlled trial of IFNβ-1b found reduced disease activity by MRI, reduced frequency and severity of exacerbations, and a tendency toward slower disability progression.

Disability years avoided are modeled as the primary health outcome analyzed. A ministry of health (MOH) perspective is adopted, using Nova Scotia population-based data. Annual IFNβ-1b direct treatment costs (Can $16,685) are high relative to both MOH healthcare costs per person with MS (Can $2,000) and estimated MOH costs avoided.

Results: Given “reference case” assumptions for women with RRMS, treatment reduces lifetime disability years by 10%. Cost per disability year avoided before discounting is Can $189,230 (US $124,892), and Can $274,842 (US $181,395) after discounting at 5%. Estimates for alternative scenarios vary greatly, leaving main findings unchanged.

Conclusions: Using the Expanded Disability Status Scale, cost per disability year avoided due to interferon beta-1b treatment in RRMS is quite high. Comparable CE estimates, using MS-specific or generic health-related quality-of-life outcome measures, are even higher. Further research is required to better measure treatment effects, modification of MS natural history, and net societal costs of IFNβ-1b in RRMS.

Objectives: This article reports a cost-effectiveness analysis of targeted screening for abdominal aortic aneurysm (AAA). A major emphasis was on the estimation of distributions of costs and effectiveness.

Methods: We performed a Monte Carlo simulation using C programming language in a PC environment. Data on survival and costs, and a majority of screening probabilities, were from our own empirical studies. Natural history data were based on the literature.

Results: Each screened male gained 0.07 life-years at an incremental cost of FIM 3,300. The expected values differed from zero very significantly. For females, expected gains were 0.02 life-years at an incremental cost of FIM 1,100, which was not statistically significant. Cost-effectiveness ratios and their 95% confidence intervals were FIM 48,000 (27,000–121,000) and 54,000 (22,000–∞) for males and females, respectively. Sensitivity analysis revealed that the results for males were stable. Individual variation in life-year gains was high.

Conclusions: Males seemed to benefit from targeted AAA screening, and the results were stable. As far as the cost-effectiveness ratio is considered acceptable, screening for males seemed to be justified. However, our assumptions about growth and rupture behavior of AAAs might be improved with further clinical and epidemiological studies. As a point estimate, females benefited in a similar manner, but the results were not statistically significant. The evidence of this study did not justify screening of females.

Objectives: Interferon beta-1b has recently become available for the treatment of secondary progressive multiple sclerosis (SPMS). This study aims at estimating the cost-effectiveness of this new treatment that has been shown in a clinical trial to reduce the progression of the disease. Effectiveness is measured as the number of quality-adjusted life-years (QALYs) gained from the reduction in progression. Because the clinical trial period will only capture part of the treatment's effect in terms of QALYs gained, since benefits achieved during the trial will have an effect beyond it, the cost-effectiveness analysis involves modeling over the longer term using complementary data.

Methods: A Markov model with states based on disability expressed by EDSS scores was used. Transition probabilities were calculated directly from clinical trial data for the first 3 years and then extrapolated to 10 years. Mean costs and utilities for each Markov state were calculated from a population-based cross-sectional study in Sweden.

Results: The incremental cost per QALY is SEK 342,700 (US $39,250;US $1 = SEK 8.73, March 10, 2000) when all costs (direct, informal care, and indirect) are included (discounted 3%). When indirect costs are excluded, the cost per QALY is SEK 542,000 ($62,100).

Conclusions: Cost-effectiveness analysis in SPMS requires that the effect of treatment beyond clinical trials be included. Also, analysis should be done from a societal perspective, since many of the costs occur outside the healthcare system. The cost-utility ratios estimated in this analysis are at or below the mean threshold value indicated in a recent survey of health economists ($60,000).

Little is known about the value patients, physicians, and payers place on intangible attributes of care. Differences in valuations among these groups and misperceptions of value of intangible attributes to other groups can contribute to conflicts about treatment recommendations or coverage decisions. We surveyed patients, physicians, and managed care executives to assess their willingness to pay (WTP) for diagnostic certainty for peptic ulcer disease (PUD) and gastroesophageal reflux disease (GERD). To determine if patients, physicians, and payers accurately perceive each other's valuations of diagnostic certainty, participants were also asked to estimate the WTP of each of the other types of respondents. Patients were most likely, and executives least likely, to value diagnostic certainty. For PUD, 84% of patients, 61% of physicians, and 43% of executives expressed a positive WTP. Median WTP was low for all three groups ($1–9 for patients and physicians; $0 for payers). Physicians and executives both correctly predicted patient WTP. For GERD, 87% of patients, 52% of physicians, and 29% of executives expressed a positive WTP. Executives underestimated patient WTP. For both diseases, physicians' WTP was overestimated by patients and underestimated by executives. The inconsistency in the value that patients, physicians, and managed care executives place on diagnostic certainty indicates the potential for conflict over practice guidelines or access to services. WTP surveys can provide information to aid in anticipating and addressing areas of disagreement.

The Danish healthcare services are mainly provided by public sector institutions. The system is highly decentralized. The state has little direct influence on the provision of healthcare services. State influence is exercised through legislation and budget allocations. The main task of the state is to initiate, co-ordinate, and advise. Counties, which run the hospitals, also decide on the placement of services. The hospital sector is controlled within the framework of legislation and global budgets. General practitioners occupy a central position in the Danish healthcare sector, acting as gatekeepers to the rest of the system. The system works well, and its structure has resulted in steady costs of health care for a long period. There is no regulatory mechanism in the Danish health services requiring use of health technology assessment (HTA) as a basis for policy decisions, planning, or administrative procedures. However, since the late 1970s a number of comprehensive assessments of health technology have formed the basis for national health policy decisions. In 1997, after years of public criticism of the quality of hospital care and health technologies, and on the basis of a previously developed national HTA strategy, a national institute for HTA (DIHTA) was established. There seems to be a growing awareness of evidence-based healthcare among health professionals and a general acceptance of health economic analyses as a basis for health policy decision making. This progress is coupled with growing regional HTA activity in the health services. HTA seems to have a bright future in Denmark.

In an effort to control ambulatory care costs, regulatory practice guidelines (références médicales opposables or RMOs) were introduced by law in France in 1993. RMOs are short sentences, negatively formulated (“it is inappropriate to \ldots”), covering medical and surgical topics, diagnosis, and treatment. Since their introduction, physicians who do not comply with RMOs can be fined. The fine is determined by a weighted combination of indices of harm, cost, and the number of violations.

The impact of the RMO policy on physician practice has been questioned, but so far few evaluations had been performed. At the end of 1997, only 121 physicians had been fined (0.1% of French private physicians). The difficulty of controlling physicians, the large number of RMOs, and the lack of a relevant information system limit the credibility of this policy.

The simultaneous development of a clinical guideline program to improve the quality of care and of a program to control medical practice can lead to a misunderstanding among clinicians and health policy makers. Financial incentives or disincentives could be used to change physician behavior, in addition to other measures such as education and organizational changes, if they are simple, well explained, and do not raise any ethical conflict. But these measures are dependent on the structure and financing of the healthcare system and on the socioeconomic and cultural context. More research is needed to assess the impact of interventions using financial incentives and disincentives on physician behavior.

Finland has a long tradition of supporting social programs that promote equality and the welfare state. The healthcare system is financed mainly by taxation. Everyone is insured against illness. Each of Finland's five provinces is run by a provincial government that monitors the provision of social welfare and health care. However, the municipalities actually provide the services and regulate medical equipment and regionalization of services. During the early 1990s, gross domestic product (GDP) fell dramatically, and healthcare expenditure rose to 9.4% of GDP. Due to the economy's rapid recovery, the share of healthcare expenditure has again decreased and now matches the average level of OECD countries of approximately 7.7 %. The former Finnish method of central planning and norm setting has guaranteed a fairly uniform development of necessary services throughout the country and free or low-cost access. Tight central planning did not, however, create incentives to contain costs. Therefore, in the beginning of the 1990s, decision-making power was largely decentralized to the municipalities, and the principles of state subsidies were reformed. In 1995, the Finnish Office for Health Care Technology Assessment (FinOHTA) was set up as a new unit of the National Research and Development Centre for Welfare and Health (STAKES). FinOHTA is intended to function as a national central body for advancing HTA-related work in Finland, with the ultimate goal of promoting the effectiveness and efficiency of Finnish health care. At present, the importance of HTA is widely recognized in Finland, especially in the face of rising healthcare costs.

Economic guidelines recommend methods that should be employed in conducting economic evaluations of healthcare programs. The nature of the efficiency or equity goal underpinning economic guidelines is unclear. What is also unclear is how the methods recommended in the guidelines are linked to the underlying efficiency or equity goal being targeted. If it is unclear what efficiency/equity objectives are being pursued, then it is unlikely that even full implementation of economic guidelines will improve resource allocation.

Objective: To analyze the rates and influences on the adoption of three selected health technologies: statins, coronary stents, and magnetic resonance imaging (MRI).Methods:A retrospective diffusion study using primary care prescribing data and questionnaire responses from acute hospital trusts in the West Midlands region (population 5.3 million or 10% of England).

Results: The selected technologies had markedly different diffusion curves. Statins diffused rapidly soon after launch. Coronary stents were initially used 6 years after first availability, but within 2 years all responding hospitals reported using them. MRI scanners were initially purchased 6 years after first availability with a subsequently slow rate of diffusion, and are still absent from some hospitals. Influences on the adoption of each technology were different. Commercial marketing was reported as a major influence on the diffusion of statins but not at all on MRIs. Cost impact was a major negative influence on the diffusion of MRI scanners and statins, whereas enthusiastic individuals were key to the diffusion of stents.

Conclusions: Influences on adoption and consequent diffusion rates are very different for different health technologies. It is not at all clear that such diffusion patterns relate well to an optimum timing rate. This has important implications for technology gatekeepers in health care.

Objectives: To estimate willingness to pay (WTP) for effective treatment in a sample of obese individuals and to examine whether WTP is associated with factors reflecting the severity of obesity as well as a number of other variables such as age, sex, education, and income.

Methods: WTP and data on the severity of obesity were collected from the study, Swedish Obese Subjects. Associations between WTP, income, and obesity-related factors were analyzed by linear regression.

Results: The mean age was 47 years (range, 37 through 59 years) and the mean body mass index (BMI) was 39.6 kg/m2 (n = 3,549). Average personal monthly income was SEK 13,000 (≈ US $1,585), average WTP was SEK 26,900 (≈ US $3,280) and the median value was SEK 10,900 (≈ US $1,330). A high WTP was associated with high personal and household income, high weight, high education, female sex, poor perceived health, low current age, and low age at onset of obesity. Over 50% of the patients deemed it necessary to borrow money to cover their WTP. When adding a loan to the regression analysis, the associations between WTP and perceived health, age, and gender disappeared.

Conclusion: Obese patients are willing to pay approximately twice their monthly salary for effective treatment and a higher WTP is associated with higher weight and poorer perceived health.