As the close of calendar year 2009 is upon us, it is an important time to reflect on the state of environmental policy for the nation and the world. This cannot be a reflection that excludes the national and international issues impacting our environment, such as the spread of nuclear weapons, conflicts in Afghanistan and Iran, and our turbulent economy. The economy is a major agenda item for all levels of government, and will be for some time into the future. The interconnectedness of world economies means increasingly that all nations share the impacts for economic downturns. For environmental professionals, the past year has had a significant impact on employment for seasoned practitioners, as well as on entry-level positions for college graduates. One area of the environmental profession that is well positioned for future investment and assistance with economic recovery is brownfield redevelopment. This is the second issue in a two-part sequence on brownfields. Because of the interest by professionals in this field, there was a large response to the call for papers. While there are several reasons for this response, one contributing factor involves the future of the environmental profession and its link to the economy. Several outstanding articles in this issue provide that link, as well as examples on what is occurring both in the United States and Europe.

A call for papers went out for a thematic issue of Environmental Practice dedicated to brownfields redevelopment as defined in the broadest policy and technical sense. The response was extremely positive. The result is that the journal will have a two-part series on the subject of brownfields that includes both this September/October issue as well as the theme for the December issue. Brownfields is a field of interest to environmental professionals both across the United States and abroad. At its foundations, it is a field that requires a team of multidisciplinary experts. It is also a field that has contributions from both practitioners and scholars. This makes it an ideal thematic issue based on the mission and vision of Environmental Practice. This year, two national brownfield conferences have helped focus professionals and scholars alike on the topic. These conferences bring a wide range and increasing number of professionals together to deliberate on a wide variety of brownfield-associated issues. The first conference, titled ‘The Big Deal’, was held in Phoenix in March 2009 by the Chicago-based National Brownfield Associations. The second is sponsored by International City/County Management Association (ICMA) and US Environmental Protection Agency (USEPA) which will be held in November 2009 in New Orleans. While there are many other statewide or regional brownfield conferences, it appears that interest in urban revitalization through brownfield redevelopment continues as a vibrant field. As a result, brownfield redevelopment is the focus for the next two issues of the journal. The editorial office invited two guest editors from the USEPA Region 5 Office who have many years of experience working in this area: James Van der Kloot and Joseph Dufficy. As a result of their efforts, together with the editor of the journal, Dr. Kelly Tzoumis, the issues reflect the collaboration and the balance between professionals and scholars who study and work in this field.

In the Pacific Northwest, state agencies have adopted definitions of mature and old-growth forest, with minimum size and age criteria for the largest trees, as part of a program to protect rare forest habitats. State wetland rating and priority habitat protection guidelines use these criteria to identify mature and old-growth forested wetlands; however, these definitions are based on the characteristics of upland habitats and may not be applicable to wetlands. In this study, data from forested wetlands in western Washington were analyzed to estimate growth rates for five tree species: western red cedar, Sitka spruce, western hemlock, red alder, and shore pine. Estimated average diameter for mature forest is 46 cm (18 inches) and for old-growth 69 cm (27 inches), significantly smaller than the standard size criteria of 53 cm (21 inches) and 81 cm (32 inches), respectively. These results may be more appropriate as size criteria for these forest stages; however, growth rates varied widely between different wetlands and between trees in the same wetland. The great variation in growth rates calls into question the validity of estimating the age of a stand based on the size of trees. Consideration should be given to applying a higher degree of protection to all forested wetlands dominated by coniferous trees, regardless of the size of the trees.

Environmental Practice 11:68–83 (2009)

The redevelopment of brownfield sites poses costs due to prior land uses and obsolete structural features, not just real or perceived contamination. Regeneration may require public subsidy, and the process may be further “threatened” by higher standards for building energy efficiency likely to arise with new climate change policies. New structural standards might undermine private reuse of old buildings on cost grounds. This article examines the potential conflict in terms of benefit trade-offs and the distribution of costs and benefits across current and future populations, examining impact assumptions and the approaches taken to risk of failure in emissions reduction, especially with regard to irreversible impacts. Two examples of pursuit of both objectives are considered: land-use planning and densification, including contaminated-land reuse; and new building standards and financing for retrofitting older structures for energy efficiency. It concludes that the conflicts are overstated and that complementarities are stronger, especially when viewed from a public sector perspective.

Environmental Practice 11:238–244 (2009)

This article presents the results of a two year pilot case study of alternative weed control in a northern Canadian community. Investigators tested the efficacy of acetic acid (vinegar) and a domestic herbivore (goats) as invasive weed control alternatives to the use of commercial herbicides in a north central British Columbian municipal setting. Results were positive for using an 8% concentration of vinegar as a control for Canada thistle (Cirsium arvense (L.) scop.), although these results were significant only in the second year of applications. Domestic goats demonstrated significant interest in thistle, as well as hawkweed, (Hieracium spp.), two species of horsetail (Equisetum arvense and Equisetum pratense), oxeye daisies (Leucanthemum vulgare), and the common dandelion (Taraxacum officinale). Cost estimates suggest that over a five year period, both methods are as cost effective as single application herbicides, while posing fewer concerns over impacts on human and ecosystem health. Both are simple solutions easily implemented, with some planning, even by small municipalities and communities.

Environmental Practice 11:3–16 (2009)

Although water-harvesting techniques have been used effectively in irrigated agriculture and domestic water supplies, there seems to have been little continued exploitation of the same techniques in arid and semiarid rangeland water conservation. A review of the history of rangeland water harvesting allows identification of the methods that have been useful in the past and that would likely be effective in the future. It seems that relatively simple water-harvesting approaches work best on rangelands, particularly water-ponding dikes to stimulate vegetation growth. Experience from rangeland water harvesting in New Mexico and other locations in the Southwest indicates that the approach is a long-term solution that produces significant vegetation growth, but generally only 10–15 years after installation because of the sporadic and spatially distributed nature of the summer monsoon rainfall. Additionally, the use of water-ponding dikes seems to most reliably produce an “island” of enhanced soil moisture and increased habitat cover and forage. Water-ponding dikes are easy and relatively inexpensive to construct and produce a pattern of vegetation similar to naturally occurring banded vegetation. Even very shallow dikes (7.5 cm) have been shown to produce a significant vegetation response. As climate changes our water supplies, historical techniques of water harvesting used for over 9,000 years are viable rangeland water conservation alternatives now and in the future for adapting to such changes.

Environmental Practice 11:84–94 (2009)

Many successful residential and other redevelopments have appeared at individual brownfield sites, yet the larger transformation of mixed-use urban neighborhoods distressed with numerous smaller, less marketable contaminated sites remains elusive. In this article, we discuss the use of three innovative mechanisms to move beyond a single parcel's boundaries to address larger-scale regeneration of contaminated areas: areawide brownfield approaches, community land trusts, and progressive financing. In addition to their conceptual appeal, each of these mechanisms has a record of implementation. For instance, community land trusts have helped revitalize communities burdened with contamination and other stresses for the benefit of lower-income and moderate-income residents, most notably in the context of affordable housing. Areawide brownfield initiatives under way in several states and municipalities have helped decrease environmental assessment costs through economies of scale. And progressive finance, although not yet applied in a contaminated-land context, has shown success in revitalizing distressed urban cores.

Environmental Practice 11:134–143 (2009)

Over the past 30 years nearly every state has implemented a voluntary compliance program (VCP) to encourage development of lightly contaminated and abandoned properties also known as brownfields. Analyses of these policies consists primarily of either case studies or tabulations of site-specific characteristics such as the past, current, and future use of sites enrolled in programs. Often ignored in these analyses are the characteristics of areas surrounding these properties. This oversight is particularly problematic, because many commentators argue that VCPs encourage development in neighborhoods with strong real estate markets and predominantly White and wealthy residents while having little impact on poorer neighborhoods with primarily Black and Hispanic residents where brownfields tend to cluster. To date, however, little empirical research supports this claim. This article addresses this need by using tax-lot-level data in conjunction with data from the United States Decennial Census to examine the characteristics of the neighborhoods surrounding New York City properties enrolled in New York State's VCP: the Brownfield Cleanup Program (BCP). I conclude that, for the city in general, even when controlling for the spatial distribution of brownfield sites, properties enrolled in the BCP are disproportionately located in neighborhoods with wealthier and Whiter residents and high property values. These results, however, obscure significant variability because projects cluster in a range of communities.

Environmental Practice 11:245–255 (2009)

This article reviews scientific, peer-reviewed literature on the costs and benefits of biofuels. Four peer-reviewed journals—Science, Natural Resources Research, Renewable Energy, and Journal of Cleaner Production—were searched for articles from the years 2006 through 2008 that evaluated some aspect of this fuel. The articles identified through this search were then assessed collectively. Non-foodstock biofuels were reported as having the fewest costs associated with their production and use. The article concludes on a sociological note, with a speculative look ahead. Drawing upon the concept of path dependency, the discussion turns briefly to society's ability (or perhaps lack thereof) to switch over to these so-called second-generation biofuels.

Environmental Practice 11:17–24 (2009)

This article presents a preliminary case study of the impacts of former gas stations on two mid-sized New Jersey cities: Trenton and Plainfield. Historic research reveals ten former gas stations for every one gas station operating in Trenton and nearly 28 former stations for every one current station in Plainfield. Only 38% of current and former gas stations in Trenton and 23% in Plainfield have any form of environmental record associated with the site. The largest category of site reuse is auto related, to include auto repair, current gas stations, used auto sales, and parking lots: 40% in Trenton and 53% in Plainfield. The largest single reuse category in each city was as unproductive land, with 19% of former Trenton gas stations and 26% of former Plainfield gas stations lying vacant. Despite this, current and former gas stations contribute annual tax revenues of over a half million dollars to Trenton and nearly $1.3 million in Plainfield, indicating that these properties can be redeveloped to provide an important contribution to the economies of these distressed cities. Attention to the environmental issues and development potential of these sites is likely to result in social, environmental, and economic benefit to communities.

Environmental Practice 11:144–152 (2009)

The presence of brownfields has become a major soil-related problem the world over. Brownfields are found not only in the United States but in every industrialized country and region. In the European Union (EU), a consensus is growing that the redevelopment of former industrial sites can play an important role in the revitalization of certain neighborhoods and areas and in the creation of new industrial sites. This article offers a survey of the recent developments in the European policy regarding brownfield remediation. The best-known attempt for an overall framework law for soil is the Proposal for a Soil Framework Directive. Unexpectedly, this proposal was blocked in 2007 by several countries and seems to be now at a dead end. However, the absence of a community legislation focused specifically on soil protection does not mean that there are no other relevant legal documents regarding the remediation of brownfields. On the contrary, for example, the Environmental Liability Directive is of prime importance for brownfield remediation throughout Europe. Other relevant and interesting legal documents are the Environmental Crime Directive, the European Community guidelines on state aid for environmental protection, and the new Waste Framework Directive. This legal framework is constantly evolving. Therefore, it is important to follow up this development. Brownfield redevelopment in the EU will be a major challenge for policy makers in the near future.

Environmental Practice 11:256–262 (2009)

In Washington State, the agricultural community faces many environmental and regulatory challenges, including water availability for irrigation; water quality and Clean Water Act (CWA) compliance; and Endangered Species Act (ESA) compliance, particularly with regard to federally listed salmon. In 2001, the Washington State Department of Agriculture initiated the State's Agriculture, Fish, and Water (AFW) process to bring regulatory agencies, tribes, and environmental stakeholders to the table in an effort to address these issues. The result was the development of the Comprehensive Irrigation District Management Plan (CIDMP) process, which provides a voluntary, locally driven, incentive-based process by which the agricultural community can improve their operations and water management techniques in response to CWA and ESA concerns. The CIDMP process was modeled after the state's Watershed Management Plans; both processes reflect an innovative approach to collaborative resource management that is unique to Washington. The goal of the CIDMP is to allow the agricultural community the flexibility to address ESA and CWA while preserving the key processes and functions that are necessary to sustain commercial agriculture in a rapidly urbanizing landscape. To date, several CIDMPs have been developed around Washington State. These pilot CIDMPs have progressed to various stages of completion and degrees of success. This article will showcase the Skagit River Basin CIDMP, a project located in Skagit County, Washington, that began in 2005 and is ongoing. The article provides an overview of the CIDMP process and the key issues it addresses, status of implementation, and lessons learned.

Environmental Practice 11:95–104 (2009)

It is important to evaluate use of urban-proximate outdoor recreation sites by diverse groups and obtain visitor viewpoints about those sites. Of particular importance are day-use sites, which receive a large amount of use but little research emphasis. Managers of urban-proximate day-use sites can better manage with detailed specific information about participation patterns, site preferences, and visitor perceptions. Results are offered from visitor contact surveys conducted at day-use sites on four urban national forests in Southern California between 2001 and 2004, with a focus on areas where Latinos recreate. These data indicate many similarities among the Latino visitors to specific sites in four Southern California forests. There were commonalities in participation in outdoor recreation activities, the relative importance of site attributes, and perceptions reported about their recreation experiences. The results suggest that management decisions about serving these groups consider the range of activity options identified, that there is a consistent desire for facilities and amenities, and that the Latino visitors are likely to continue to recreate in these places and will tell others about it, probably leading to increased use by these respondent groups in the future.

Environmental Practice 11:263–269 (2009)

Through source separation of biodegradable material, the Divided Waste Processing model, developed by the authors in Brazil, has the potential of diverting up to 85% of domestic waste away from landfills. Because a maximum diversion using traditional models of selective collection stands at 15%, the value put forward here introduces a new paradigm for consideration by municipal administrations. The success of divided processing of biodegradable and inert material depends on satisfactory source separation, which was demonstrated in residential sectors, condominium buildings, and grade schools. The destinations of biodegradable material were animal feed and compost; the composting operation was carried out in the neighborhoods of the test communities and can be accompanied by the residents. The inert material was disposed of by professional waste retailers. The long-term success of the source-separation procedure depends upon constant monitoring. In one of the test communities, the procedure continues to be operational after six years and diverts 67% of the community's waste from the landfill. The model is available for imitation in other test communities around the same city, until the extrapolation to larger sectors—through the application of appropriate managerial strategies—can be accomplished. Several possible strategies are discussed. Outside Brazil, the application will depend on local situations.

Environmental Practice 11:25–31 (2009)

This commentary offers a background to the carbon challenge, carbon offsets, and emissions trading from an Australian perspective. It sets the scene for a more detailed discussion about carbon sequestration rights, which are defined explicitly by some Australian states and territories but not by others. We highlight that the term carbon sequestration right is poorly defined and relies, inappropriately we suggest, on the borrowed term profit à prendre. This terminology is at odds with the notion of a carbon property right, which has yet to be conceptualized fully by the marketplace and the existing legal framework, given the need to fully engage the sociological and ecological dimensions of carbon and climate change. We find that current policy intent, together with evolving public will and corporate responsibility, is ahead of the science and the legal framework for managing property rights in carbon (used broadly to represent the six greenhouse gasses). The Australian Property Institute has taken the lead in its 2007 policy paper Conceiving Property Rights in Carbon and more recently in Sheehan and Kanas's investigation of “Property Rights in Soil.” This article takes the discussion to the next stage by offering a framework for property rights in carbon and asking whether such rights should be vested in the state or the nation, rather than merely creating a commodity that can be efficiently allocated and thus speculated upon.

Environmental Practice 11:105–114 (2009)

Many communities contain a number of underutilized and contaminated infill properties, known as brownfields, which often result from changing development patterns. Florida's program offers incentives, such as liability protection and tax credits, for job creation and cleanup costs in order to alleviate this problem. Although the program has continuously expanded, after more then ten years little research has been conducted evaluating the program's effectiveness. In this article, I review the relevant literature and interview stakeholders to evaluate the program. Although little empirical evidence exists, Florida's program is largely considered successful. An increasing number of areas are designated, cleanup agreements are signed, and properties are cleaned and redeveloped. I have narrowed down a number of ideas that will help promote local brownfield programs as well as policy recommendations that would increase the effectiveness of state programs. Specifically, I have isolated a number of factors existing on the local level that promote brownfield development, including infill demand, access to funding, trained staff, experienced developers and consultants, political and community support, and land use/zoning intensity. Although every program would benefit from increased funding, greater consistency in review, and more research and information, I recommend several development policies that would promote brownfield development, such as a state policy and amended planning requirements. Through these changes targeted at the local and state levels, I believe that brownfield redevelopment could reach a new level of achievement.

Environmental Practice 11:153–163 (2009)