A large amount of literature surrounds the differences between dissociative neurological symptom disorder with non-epileptic seizures (DNSD-S) and epilepsy.

To explore the research gap on phenotypic differences between DNSD-S and other psychiatric disorders.

We conducted a case–control study of 1860 patients (620 patients with DNSD-S and 1240 controls with other psychiatric disorders) seen at the South London and Maudsley Hospital NHS Trust between 2007 and 2019.

Compared with the controls, the patients with DNSD-S were more likely to be female (76 v. 47%, P < 0.001), of White ethnicity (77 v. 60%, P < 0.001), married (34 v. 14%, P < 0.001) and living in areas of lower socioeconomic status (−3.79, 95% CI −2.62 to −4.96, P < 0.001). Two peaks for age at diagnosis were observed for DNSD-S: the early 20s and late 40s. After 31 years of age, men's chance of being diagnosed with DNSD-S increased from 19 to 28% (P = 0.009). People with DNSD-S presented more commonly with a history of a neurological episodic or paroxysmal disorder (OR = 12, 95% CI 7.82–20.26), another dissociative disorder (OR = 10, 95% CI 1.64– 65.95) or unclassified signs or symptoms (OR = 4, 95% CI 2.61–6.43). Neither anxiety, depression nor other somatoform disorders predicted subsequent diagnosis of DNSD-S, and controls had a larger proportion of preceding psychiatric diagnoses than patients with DNSD-S (65 v. 49%, P < 0.001).

This is the first study comparing demographic and phenotypic correlates of patients with DNSD-S against a large cohort of psychiatric patients. These data will inform development and drive service needs in psychiatry for people with DNSD-S.

COVID-19 lockdown measures imposed extensive restrictions to public life. Previous studies suggest significant negative psychological consequences, but lack longitudinal data on population-based samples.

We aimed to prospectively identify increased psychological stress and associated risk factors in parent–child dyads.

We conducted a prospective, observational online study on a representative German sample of 1221 adolescents aged 10–17 years and their parents. Psychological stress and psychosocial variables were assessed before the pandemic (baseline) and 1 month after the start of lockdown (follow-up), using standardised measures. We used multilevel modelling to estimate changes in psychological stress, and logistic regression to determine demographic and psychosocial risk factors for increased psychological stress.

The time of measurement explained 43% of the psychological stress variance. Of 731 dyads with complete data, 252 adolescents (34.5%, 95% CI 31.0–37.9) and 217 parents (29.7%, 95% CI 26.4–33.0) reported a significant increase in psychological stress. Baseline levels were lower than in dyads without increased psychological stress. Risk factors for increased psychological stress included sociodemographic (e.g. female parents, severe financial worries) and emotion regulation aspects (e.g. non-acceptance of emotional responses in parents, limited access to emotion regulation strategies in adolescents), explaining 31% of the adolescent (Nagelkerke R2 = 0.31) and 29% of the parental (Nagelkerke R2 = 0.29) model variance.

This study is the first to prospectively show an increase in psychological stress during COVID-19 lockdown in a representative family sample. Identified demographic and psychosocial risk factors lead to relevant implications for prevention measures regarding this important public health issue.

Research into the association between childhood sexual abuse (CSA) and self-harm repetition is limited.

We aimed to examine the association between self-harm repetition, mental health conditions, suicidal intent and CSA experiences among people who frequently self-harm.

A mixed-methods study was conducted including consecutive patients aged ≥18 years, with five or more self-harm presentations, in three Irish hospitals. Information was extracted from psychiatric records and patients were invited to participate in a semi-structured interview. Data was collected and analysed with a mixed-methods, convergent parallel design. In tandem, the association between CSA and self-harm repetition, suicidal intent and mental health conditions was examined with logistic regression models and independent sample t-test, with psychiatric records data. Thematic analysis was conducted with interview data, to explore CSA experiences and self-harm repetition.

Between March 2016 and July 2019, information was obtained on 188 consecutive participants, with 36 participants completing an interview. CSA was recorded in 42% of the total sample and 72.2% of those interviewed. CSA was positively associated with self-harm repetition (odds ratio 6.26, 95% CI 3.94−9.94, P = 0.00). Three themes emerged when exploring participants’ CSA experiences: CSA as a precipitating factor for self-harm, secrecy of CSA accentuating shame, and loss experiences linked to CSA and self-harm.

CSA was frequently reported among people who frequently self-harm, and associated with self-harm repetition. Identification of patients at risk of repetition is key for suicide prevention. This is an at-risk group with particular characteristics that must be considered; comprehensive patient histories can help inform and tailor treatment pathways.

Agility in educational delivery has been catalyzed in response to national restrictions mandated by the recent COVID-19 pandemic. Increased use of assistive technologies further aligns with the General Medical Council's aims that medical educators provide an 'accessible training experience'. The study examined medical students' receptiveness to different types of interactive teaching. Two undergraduate cohorts received teaching on the Mental State Examination, either socially-distanced delivered by traditional powerpoint or remotely by mind-mapping software on a tablet hand-held digital device. We required an effective program which would retain the popular interactive elements of Psychiatry teaching and promote inclusivity across students' diverse learning styles.

Two cohorts of Year 2 students from the Universities of Dundee and St Andrew's Scottish Graduate-Entry Medicine (scotGEM) course took part in an Introduction to Psychiatry seminar which involved a presentation of the Mental State Examination. One was conducted in a face-to-face setting via traditional PowerPoint. The second was conducted via remote-conferencing with mindmaps of key concepts drawn and screen-shared live to students as teaching progressed.

This was a qualitative study, with online links to questionnaires for 24 student participants across 5 domains. (1. The tutorial met my learning objectives, 2. The format was suitable for me, 3. The balance of theory and cases was suitable for me, 4. The tutorial was of appropriate length, 5. I was satisfied with the performance) Response options included: strongly disagree, disagree, neutral, agree, strongly agree. A section was also included with open-ended questions pooled for thematic analysis.

Response rate reached >60% with >80% respondents answering strongly agree across all domains. Thematic results demonstrated positive responses across both teaching sessions, with the interactive elements valued by students. Comments included: “great job was done with the delivery of the session considering it was online rather than in person”; “drawing element was fantastic”; “Good: interactivity of the session drawing and creativity element”.

The Mental State Examination (MSE) via live-drawn mind-maps allows salient clinical information to be conceptualised in non-linear diagramatic format. This paediological approach can offer further access points across wide range of learning styles. This pilot study demonstrated such interactive components of Psychiatry teaching continue to be well received and can be effectively delivered remotely. Such sessions also serve to promote inclusivity, linking those who are geographically distant in addition to the visual learner and the neurodiverse. We aim to incorporate these dynamic teaching sessions into our online induction programs and disseminate Intelligent Tutorials to our remote and rural learners throughout Scotland.

This study investigated the change in suicidal ideation and its risk factors among employees. A longitudinal cohort study was conducted, starting with the baseline online survey in March 2020 (T1), followed by May (T2), and August (T3). The change in suicidal ideation from T2 to T3 and relevant factors associated with suicidal ideation at T3 were examined. Suicidal ideation significantly increased between May and August 2020 among females, younger (under 39 years old), highly educated population, and those without pre-existing mental health conditions. Factors significantly associated with suicidal ideation were younger age, suicidal ideation at T2, and with pre-existing mental health conditions. Loneliness at T2 showed a significant association with suicidal ideation, if adjusting those without pre-existing mental health conditions. National and community support is needed to target people who are likely to be left behind, such as young people and those with pre-existing mental health conditions, in the pandemic.

A longitudinal study was conducted with a cohort of full-time employees, starting with the baseline online survey in March 2020 (time point 1), followed by May (time point 2) and August (time point 3). The change in suicidal ideation from time point 2 to 3, and relevant factors associated with suicidal ideation at time point 3, were examined.

Suicidal ideation significantly increased between time points 2 and 3 among women, younger people (aged <39 years), those who were highly educated and those without pre-existing mental health conditions. Factors significantly associated with suicidal ideation were younger age, suicidal ideation at time point 2 and pre-existing mental health conditions. Loneliness at time point 2 showed a significant association with suicidal ideation when adjusting for those without pre-existing mental health conditions.

National and community support is needed to target people who are likely to be left behind, such as young people, those with pre-existing mental health conditions and those experiencing loneliness, in the COVID-19 pandemic.

To assess the prevalence of elevated risk of serious mental illness and probable ICD-11 adjustment disorder in the UK population at two time points during COVID-19, and their association with COVID-19-related stressful events.

To check the dose–response model for stress between the number of COVID-19-related stressful events and mental health indices.

We conducted two cross-sectional studies, using internet survey samples across the UK (N = 1293 for study 1; N = 1073 for study 2). Samples used internet panel surveys during March–April 2020 and 3 months later (June 2020), and used random stratified samples. Studies assessed prevalence of serious risk of mental illness and probable ICD-11 adjustment disorder.

Elevated risk of serious mental illness was found among those with COVID-19-related social life or occupationally stressful events (study 1). Elevated risk of serious mental illness and probable ICD-11 adjustment disorder was evident among those reporting COVID-19-related stressful events (personal health problems and caregiving; study 2). Cumulative COVID-19-related stressful events were associated with elevated risk of serious mental illness in study 1 (odds ratio 1.65; 95% CI 1.03–2.64; P = 0.037), and with both elevated risk of serious mental illness (odds ratio 2.19; 95% CI 1.15–4.15; P = 0.017) and probable ICD-11 adjustment disorder (odds ratio 2.45; 95% CI 1.27–4.72; P = 0.007) in study 2.

Psychiatrists should be aware that COVID-19-related stressful events can lead to serious psychological problems. Mental health professionals need to pay particular attention to patients who report cumulative COVID-19-related stressful events, and consider them for mental health assessment and treatment.

Compliance with government-recommended preventive measures represents a key factor in mitigating the negative consequences of coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19).

The study investigated the relation between health anxiety, perceived risk and perceived control as predictors of coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19)-related anxiety and preventive behaviours (both adaptive and dysfunctional/excessive) during the early pandemic response in Romania.

Data were collected in April–May 2020, and the sample comprised 236 participants, 192 women, mean age 31.44 (s.d. = 10.30, age range 16–67).

Our results showed that health anxiety and perceived control, but not perceived risk predicted adaptive preventive behaviours, whereas dysfunctional behaviours were predicted by health anxiety alone. COVID-19-related anxiety was predicted by health anxiety and perceived risk, with perceived control emerging as a non-significant predictor. Also, we found that the effect of health anxiety on COVID-19-related anxiety was mediated by perceived risk, and that perceived control acted as a moderator in the relation between health anxiety and dysfunctional (but not adaptive) preventive behaviours.

Our results suggest health anxiety is a significant predictor of COVID-19-related anxiety and preventive behaviours. Also, adaptive, but not dysfunctional, preventive behaviours were additionally predicted by perceived control, pointing to the important role of control and self-efficacy in explaining adherence to recommendations.

During the global COVID-19 pandemic, there has been guidance concerning adaptations that physical healthcare services can implement to aid containment, but there is relatively little guidance for how mental healthcare services should adapt service provision to better support staff and patients, and minimise contagion spread.

This systematic review explores service adaptations in mental health services during the COVID-19 pandemic and other contagions.

The Allied and Complementary Medicine database (AMED), the Cumulative Index to Nursing and Allied Health Literature (CINAHL), EMBASE, Medline, PsycINFO and Web of Science were systematically searched for published studies from database inception to April 2020. Data were extracted focusing on changes to mental health services during contagion outbreaks. Data were analysed with thematic analysis.

Nineteen papers were included: six correspondence/point-of-view papers, five research papers, five reflection papers, two healthcare guideline documents and one government document. Analysis highlighted four main areas for mental health services to consider during contagion outbreaks: infection control measures to minimise contagion spread, including procedural and practical solutions across different mental health settings; service delivery, including service changes, operational planning and continuity of care; staff well-being (psychological and practical support); and information and communication.

Mental health services need to consider infection control measures and implement service changes to support continuity of care, and patient and staff well-being. Services also need to ensure they are communicating important information in a clear and accessible manner with their staff and patients, regarding service delivery, contagion symptoms, government guidelines and well-being.

Recently, artificial intelligence-powered devices have been put forward as potentially powerful tools for the improvement of mental healthcare. An important question is how these devices impact the physician-patient interaction.

Aifred is an artificial intelligence-powered clinical decision support system (CDSS) for the treatment of major depression. Here, we explore the use of a simulation centre environment in evaluating the usability of Aifred, particularly its impact on the physician–patient interaction.

Twenty psychiatry and family medicine attending staff and residents were recruited to complete a 2.5-h study at a clinical interaction simulation centre with standardised patients. Each physician had the option of using the CDSS to inform their treatment choice in three 10-min clinical scenarios with standardised patients portraying mild, moderate and severe episodes of major depression. Feasibility and acceptability data were collected through self-report questionnaires, scenario observations, interviews and standardised patient feedback.

All 20 participants completed the study. Initial results indicate that the tool was acceptable to clinicians and feasible for use during clinical encounters. Clinicians indicated a willingness to use the tool in real clinical practice, a significant degree of trust in the system's predictions to assist with treatment selection, and reported that the tool helped increase patient understanding of and trust in treatment. The simulation environment allowed for the evaluation of the tool's impact on the physician–patient interaction.

The simulation centre allowed for direct observations of clinician use and impact of the tool on the clinician–patient interaction before clinical studies. It may therefore offer a useful and important environment in the early testing of new technological tools. The present results will inform further tool development and clinician training materials.

To assess patient and clinician acceptability of handheld 6-lead ECG, for obtaining information about cardiac rhythm and electrical intervals, in acute general adult mental health ward inpatients who refuse traditional 12-lead ECG.

In a previous audit of patients admitted to four acute general adult mental health wards, we found that 1 in 4 patients refused 12-lead ECG for at least two weeks, with 1 in 6 refusing throughout their entire stay. ECG refusers were significantly more likely to have a psychotic illness than non-refusers and were thus more likely to benefit from medications that carry a risk of prolonging the QT interval. Less invasive, handheld, 6-lead ECG, which includes measurement of lead II (the lead used to define traditional QT-interval cut-off values) is available on the NHS supply chain. Whilst not providing the full range of information that 12-lead ECG is able to provide, handheld 6-lead ECG might be an acceptable alternative in patients who would otherwise never have any form of ECG performed.

We developed a Standard Operating Procedure for use of handheld 6-lead ECG and provided training for junior doctors on the four wards that were the subject of our original audit. These doctors were then able to offer the device to patients on their wards who refused 12-lead ECG. Doctors completed a short feedback form each time a handheld ECG was offered.

So far, handheld 6-lead ECGs have been offered to 17 patients who refused 12-lead ECGs. Mean age (± SD) was 36.1 (± 12.6) years, and 4 of these patients were female. 13 patients (76%) accepted a handheld ECG. One of these attempts failed due to patient agitation. Attempts took a mean of 7 (± 5.4) minutes. 54% of recordings were described as “very easy” by clinicians, whereas 15%, 23% and 8% were described as “somewhat easy”, “intermediate”, and “somewhat difficult”, respectively. Clinician difficulties focussed on patient movement with impact on electrode contact and trace quality. Where answered (N = 10), 90% of patients stated they would recommend a handheld ECG to others. Patients liked the speed of the process, that it felt “less scary”, and that it was less invasive and did not involve removing clothing.

Our initial findings from this pilot suggest that handheld 6-lead ECG may be acceptable, both to clinicians and patients, as a means of obtaining information on cardiac rhythm and electrical intervals for patients who refuse 12-lead ECGs.

The COVID-19 pandemic and resultant social restrictions have had widespread psychological ramifications, including a rise in depression prevalence. However, longitudinal studies on sociodemographic risk factors are lacking.

To quantify longitudinal changes in depression symptoms during the pandemic compared with a pre-pandemic baseline, in middle-aged and older adults, and identify the risk factors contributing to this.

A total of 5331 participants aged ≥50 years were drawn from the English Longitudinal Study of Ageing. Self-reported depression symptoms in June/July 2020 were compared with baseline data from 2–3 years prior. Regression models investigated sociodemographic and lifestyle variables that could explain variance in change in depression.

Within-participant depression scores increased significantly from pre-pandemic levels: 14% met the criteria for clinical depression at baseline, compared with 26% during the pandemic. Younger age, female gender, higher depression scores at baseline, living alone and having a long-standing illness were significant risk factors. Gender-stratified regression models indicated that older age was protective for women only, whereas urban living increased risk among women only. Being an alcohol consumer was a protective factor among men only.

Depression in UK adults aged ≥50 years increased significantly during the pandemic. Being female, living alone and having a long-standing illness were prominent risk factors. Younger women living in urban areas were at particularly high risk, suggesting such individuals should be prioritised for support. Findings are also informative for future risk stratification and intervention strategies, particularly if social restrictions are reimposed as the COVID-19 crisis continues to unfold.

Neurobiological research frequently implicates inflammatory and neurogenic components with core aspects of bipolar disorder. Even in periods of symptom remission (euthymia), individuals with bipolar disorder experience cognitive impairments, which are increasingly being proposed as an outcome for interventions; identifying biomarkers associated with cognitive impairment in people with bipolar disorder could advance progress in this therapeutic field through identifying biological treatment targets.

We aimed to identify proteomic biomarker correlates of cognitive impairment in individuals with euthymic bipolar disorder.

Forty-four adults with a bipolar disorder diagnosis in euthymia underwent a battery of cognitive assessments and provided blood for biomarkers. We examined a comprehensive panel of inflammatory and trophic proteins as putative cross-sectional predictors of cognition, conceptualised according to recommended definitions of clinically significant cognitive impairment (binary construct) and global cognitive performance (continuous measure).

A total of 48% of the sample met the criteria for cognitive impairment. Adjusting for potentially important covariates, regression analyses identified lower levels of three proteins as significantly and independently associated with cognitive deficits, according to both binary and continuous definitions (interleukin-7, vascular endothelial growth factor C and placental growth factor), and one positively correlated with (continuous) global cognitive performance (basic fibroblast growth factor).

This study identifies four candidate markers of cognitive impairment in bipolar disorder, none of which have been previously compared with cognitive function in participants with bipolar disorder. Pending replication in larger samples and support from longitudinal studies, these markers could have implications for treating cognitive dysfunction in this patient population.

Psychiatric disorders, such as depression and anxiety, are commonly associated with epilepsy in the general population, but the relationship between psychiatric disorders and epilepsy among adults with intellectual disabilities is unclear.

To conduct a systematic review and meta-analysis to assess whether epilepsy is associated with an increased rate of psychiatric disorders in adults with intellectual disabilities.

We included literature published between 1985 and 2020 from four databases, and hand-searched six relevant journals. We assessed risk of bias by using SIGN 50 and the Cochrane risk of bias tool. Several meta-analyses were carried out.

We included 29 papers involving data on 9594 adults with intellectual disabilities, 3180 of whom had epilepsy and 6414 did not. Of the 11 controlled studies that compared the overall rate of psychiatric disorders between the epilepsy and non-epilepsy groups, seven did not show any significant inter-group difference. Meta-analysis was possible on pooled data from seven controlled studies, which did not show any significant inter-group difference in the overall rate of psychiatric disorders. The rates of psychotic disorders, depressive disorders and anxiety disorders were significantly higher in the non-epilepsy control groups compared with the epilepsy group, with effect sizes of 0.29, 0.47 and 0.58, respectively. Epilepsy-related factors did not show any definite association with psychiatric disorders.

It is difficult to pool data from such heterogeneous studies and draw any definitive conclusion because most studies lacked an appropriately matched control group, which will be required for future studies.

There is an unprecedented surge of forcibly displaced people globally, with a crisis of unaccompanied minors seeking haven across the US border.

This paper aims to provide an understanding of the intersection between mental health and immigration policies.

Examples of contemporary policies that focus on the deterrence, detention and deportation of unaccompanied minors in the USA, will be discussed, as well as the mental health effects of such ‘iron triangle’ immigration policies.

In the ideal circumstances, systems and policies for migrant children would uphold international humanitarian law, hasten the shift from enforcement to protection, adhere to a ‘do no (further) harm’ model that uses a trauma-informed, culturally responsive approach to engaging with migrant children, engage the community as stakeholders to end detention and advocate to share the burden of responsibility.

Building a humanitarian response that protects both country and migrant interest is possible through commitment and policy change that addresses mental, physical and legal protection needs.

Irregular hospital discharge is highly prevalent among people admitted to hospital for mental health reasons. No study has examined the relationship between irregular discharge, post-discharge mortality and treatment setting (i.e. mortality after patients are discharged from acute in-patient or residential mental health settings).

To understand the relationship between irregular discharge and mortality among patients discharged from acute in-patient and residential settings.

A retrospective study was conducted in members of the US veteran population discharged from acute in-patient or residential settings of the US Department of Veterans Affairs between 2003 and 2018. Multivariate Cox proportional hazards were used to evaluate associations between irregular discharge and suicide, external-cause (as defined by ICD-10 Codes: V01-Y98) and all-cause mortality in the first 30-, 90- and 180-days post-discharge.

There were over 1.5 million mental health discharges between 2003 and 2018. Patients with an irregular discharge were at increased risk for suicide, external-cause and all-cause mortality in the first 180 days after discharge. In the first 30 days after discharge, patients with irregular discharge had more than three times greater suicide risk than patients with regular discharge (adjusted hazard ratio (HR) = 3.41, 95% CI 2.21–5.25). Suicide risk was higher among patients with irregular discharge in the first 30 days after acute in-patient discharge (adjusted HR = 1.55, 95% CI 1.11–2.16). In both settings, the mortality risk associated with irregular discharge attenuated but remained elevated within 90 and 180 days.

Irregular discharge after an acute in-patient or residential stay poses a large risk for mortality soon after discharge. Clinicians must identify effective interventions to mitigate harms associated with irregular discharge in these settings.

Roughly 25% of the prison population are known to meet the criteria for attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD), a five-fold increase on the general population. Medium secure psychiatric services receive a high percentage of referrals from the prison service. ADHD has primary symptoms of inattention, hyperactivity and impulsivity. Untreated ADHD could clearly have a detrimental impact on the effectiveness of therapeutic interventions, as well as increasing incidents of violence, aggression and other transgressive behaviours.

There are two aims: To screen the medium secure services population at the Spinney Hospital, Atherton, UK for ADHD, using a validated screening tool. This would generate candidates for further structured clinical assessment for ADHD; To implement ADHD screening as a feature of the Admission Care Plan within medium secure services at the Spinney.

The study population is the medium secure service at The Spinney Hospital, Atherton. At the time of study this was 52 male service users.

The team members have evaluated several screening tools. The tool eventually chosen was the B-BAARS, which is a simple 6-question tool that is validated for use in adults. The tool takes around 1 minute to complete. All 52 service users were screened between 20/01/2021 and 30/01/2021.

1 of the 52 service users had a current diagnosis of ADHD and was being treated with medication. 3 of the 52 service users had childhood diagnoses of ADHD that had lapsed in adulthood and who were untreated. Of the remaining 51 service users without a current diagnosis of ADHD, 9 were positive on screening as worthy of further assessment (17.65%). Assessments of the 9 service users positive in screening will be completed by medical and psychology disciplines.

There appears to be clear merit for routine screening for ADHD within medium secure psychiatric services, given the service user population and the results described above. As a result of this survey, within The Spinney Hospital the B-BAARS will be incorporated into the Admission Care Plan of all new admissions to medium secure services as a Quality Improvement Intervention. Over time this will be re-audited and there will be assessment of any impact on incidents and positive engagement with activities.

People with schizophrenia have shortened lives. This excess mortality seems to be related to physical health conditions that may be amenable to better primary and secondary prevention. Better continuity of care may enhance such interventions as well as help prevent death by self-injury.

We set out to examine the relationship between the continuity of care of patients with schizophrenia, their mortality and cause of death.

Pseudoanonymised community data from 5551 people with schizophrenia presenting over 11 years were examined for changes in continuity of care using the numbers of community teams caring for them and the Modified Modified Continuity Index. These and demographic variables were related to death certifications of physical illness from the Office of National Statistics and mortal self-injury from clinical data. Data were analysed using generalised estimating equations.

We found no independent relationship between levels of continuity of care and overall mortality. However, lower levels of relationship continuity were significantly and independently related to death by self-injury.

We found no evidence that continuity of care is important in the prevention of physical causes of death in schizophrenia. However, there is evidence that declining relationship continuity of care has an independent effect on deaths as a result of self-injury. We suggest that there should be more attention focused on the improvement of continuity of care for these patients.

Socioeconomic factors can affect healthcare management.

The aim was to investigate if patient educational attainment is associated with management of bipolar disorder.

We included patients with bipolar disorder type 1 (n = 4289), type 2 (n = 4020) and not otherwise specified (n = 1756), from the Swedish National Quality Register for Bipolar Disorder (BipoläR). The association between patients’ educational level and pharmacological and psychological interventions was analysed by binary logistic regression. We calculated odds ratios after adjusting for demographic and clinical variables.

Higher education was associated with increased likelihood of receiving psychotherapy (adjusted odds ratio 1.34, 95% CI 91.22–1.46) and psychoeducation (adjusted odds ratio 1.18, 95% CI 1.07–1.46), but with lower likelihood of receiving first-generation antipsychotics (adjusted odds ratio 0.76, 95% CI 0.62–0.94) and tricyclic antidepressants (adjusted odds ratio 0.76, 95% CI 0.59–0.97). Higher education was also associated with lower risk for compulsory in-patient care (adjusted odds ratio 0.79, 95% CI 0.67–0.93).

Pharmacological and psychological treatment of bipolar disorder differ depending on patients’ educational attainment. The reasons for these disparities remain to be explained.