There is a substantial burden on global mental health as a result of the Coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) pandemic that has become putting pressure on healthcare systems. There is increasing concern about rising suicidality consequential to the COVID-19 pandemic and the measures taken. Existing research about the impact of earlier epidemics and economic crises as well as current studies about the effects of the pandemic on public mental health and populations at risk indicate rising suicidality, especially in the middle and longer term.

This study investigated the early impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on suicidality by comparing weekly in-patient admissions for individuals who were suicidal or who attempted suicide just before admission, for the first 6 months after the pandemic's onset in Switzerland with corresponding 2019 control data.

Data was collected at the Psychiatric University Hospital of Zurich. An interrupted time-series design was used to analyse the number of patients who were suicidal.

Instead of a suggested higher rate of suicidality, fewer admissions of patients with suicidal thoughts were found during the first 6-months after the COVID-19 outbreak. However, the proportion of involuntary admissions was found to be higher and more patients have been admitted after a first suicide attempt than in the corresponding control period from 2019.

Although admissions relating to suicidality decreased during the pandemic, the rising number of patients admitted with a first suicide attempt may be an early indicator for an upcoming extra burden on public mental health (and care). Being a multifactorial process, suicidality is influenced in several ways; low in-patient admissions of patients who are suicidal could also reflect fear of contagion and related uncertainty about seeking mental healthcare.

Despite a significant need, there are currently no rigorously developed empirically based models for what personal recovery from a suicidal episode looks like.

To develop a theoretical model of personal recovery after a suicidal episode, based on a comprehensive literature review and stakeholder feedback.

A scoping review of all empirical studies on this topic was conducted, followed by a thematic analysis to create a preliminary framework. Consultation-based revisions were then made based on feedback from a stakeholder panel to develop the final theoretical model.

The final model comprised seven themes: choosing life, optimising identity, understanding oneself, rediscovering meaning, acceptance, growing connectedness and empowerment (acronym ‘COURAGE’). Although there are some similarities between COURAGE and other models of personal recovery, there are components, such as ‘choosing life’ and ‘understanding oneself’, that are specific to recovery after an acute suicidal episode.

To our knowledge, this is the first study to use a comprehensive literature review with stakeholder feedback to develop a conceptual model of personal recovery after an acute suicidal episode. This model has important implications for both researchers and clinicians to consider. Looking ahead, COURAGE can inform the reconceptualisation of assessment, research and clinical care of individuals who have experienced a suicidal episode.

Neutropenia associated with clozapine affects up to 3% of patients. For the purpose of clozapine treatment, absolute neutrophil count (ANC) between 1.5–2.0 × 109/L is considered as amber result; requiring twice-weekly blood sampling until when it returns to normal. Interestingly, some patients on clozapine may develop transient neutropenia also known as Morning Pseudoneutropenia (MPN), or pseudoneutropenia. It is a phenomenon where normal diurnal variation of circulating white blood cells (WBC) and in particular ANC become more accentuated. In these patients, blood samples taken in the morning would tend to have amber results, while blood samples taken on the same day in the afternoon will have normal ANC. A case is reported where a patient with severe emotionally unstable personality disorder (EUPD) developed MPN 38 days after clozapine initiation.

AA is a 19-year-old white lady with a diagnosis of severe EUPD. Prior to starting clozapine, AA had tried several oral and depot antipsychotics, antidepressants and lithium without success. AA was started on clozapine. Her initial pre-clozapine blood count taken in the morning was WBC-5.8 x109/L and her ANC was 2.7 x109/L. AA improved quickly on clozapine. However, five weeks later, her first amber report was received. AA went on to have another six amber results before MPN was suspected. AA blood sampling was moved to the afternoon. There were no more amber results thereafter.

To my knowledge, this is the first published case of a patient with EUPD treated with clozapine who went on to develop MPN. Recurrent amber results with samples taken before mid-day should alert clinicians of this phenomenon. Of course, other causes of neutropenia need to be excluded.

It is noteworthy that most reported cases in literature though few, involves patients with treatment resistant schizophrenia. Being aware of this phenomenon may raise our suspicion index and hopefully reduce the need for frequent repeated blood tests and the need to stop clozapine given the risk of relapse and its implications.

Few cases have also been reported in patients with physical health problems such as Grave's disease, systemic lupus erythematosus, and lymphangioleiomyomatosis. Medications that have been implicated to potentiate ANC diurnal variation including clozapine, risperidone, prednisolone, methimazole, and sirolimus.

Morning pseudoneutropenia is an accentuated normal diurnal variation of WBC. Early detection by collecting samples in the afternoon when there are recurring amber results can reduce unnecessary repeated blood tests and can prevent premature discontinuation of clozapine.

Lifestyle interventions can improve health-related outcomes for people with severe mental illness (SMI), but few studies evaluate this potential in everyday settings. After a successful approach in routine inpatient mental healthcare (MULTI), we sought to replicate this multidisciplinary lifestyle-enhancing support in people with SMI living in sheltered housing (MULTI_sh).

To evaluate the effectiveness and implementation of MULTI_sh (trial registration: NCT03157557).

In an effectiveness-implementation hybrid cluster-randomised controlled trial, six municipalities with sheltered housing facilities in The Netherlands were randomly assigned to MULTI_sh (n = 3) or treatment as usual (TAU, n = 3). After 12 months, we evaluated effects on metabolic health, sedentary behaviour/physical activity (ActiGraph GT3X+), quality of life (EuroQol 5D, WHOQoL-Bref) and psychopathology (Brief Psychiatric Rating Scale Expanded Version) using multiple regression, adjusting for baseline values and municipalities (intention to treat and per protocol). In addition, implementation fidelity and barriers/facilitators were evaluated (Measurement Instrument for Determinants of Innovation).

Of 177 eligible patients, 74 (42%) could be included in the analyses. Health outcomes did not substantially improve with MULTI_sh (n = 45) compared with TAU (n = 29). MULTI_sh was not implemented as intended. Most patients and all healthcare professionals believed that patients’ lifestyle should be part of treatment, but implementation was primarily (in)directly hindered by organisational factors (e.g. staff shortages, complexity of participation, lack of time and difficulty getting patients involved).

MULTI_sh was not implemented as intended and no clinical health improvements were found. Organisations are decisive in the success or failure of the implementation of lifestyle interventions for people with SMI. More intensive implementation strategies on this level are warranted in sheltered housing.

Recent research has investigated the use of serious games as a form of therapeutic intervention for depression and anxiety in young people.

To conduct a systematic review and meta-analysis into the effectiveness of gaming interventions for treating either depression or anxiety in individuals aged 12–25 years.

An electronic search was conducted on the 30 March 2020, using PsycINFO, ISI Web of Science Core Collection, Medline and EMBASE databases. Standardised effect sizes (Hedge's g) were calculated for between-participant comparisons between experimental (therapeutic intervention) and control conditions, and within-participant comparisons between pre- and post-intervention time points for repeated measures designs.

Twelve studies (seven randomised controlled trials (RCTs) and five non-randomised studies) were included. For RCTs, there was a statistically significant and robust effect (g = −0.54, 95% CI −1.00 to −0.08) favouring the therapeutic intervention when treating youth depression. For non-RCTs, using a repeated measures design, the overall effect was also strong (g = −0.75, 95% CI −1.64 to 0.14) favouring therapeutic intervention, but this was not statistically significant. Interestingly, we found no statistically significant effect for treating youth anxiety.

There is preliminary evidence to suggest that gaming interventions are an effective treatment for youth depression, but not anxiety. Further research is warranted to establish the utility, acceptability and effectiveness of gaming interventions in treating mental health problems in young people.

The Royal Australian and New Zealand College of Psychiatrists clinical practice guidelines for mood disorders (MDcpg2015 and MDcpg2020) provide evidence-based and consensus-based recommendations for managing mood disorders.

We examined Australian real-world prescribing habits to determine whether management in clinical practice aligned with MDcpg2015 recommendations.

A retrospective analysis of a cohort of patients ≥16 years old who had been dispensed a Pharmaceutical Benefits Scheme (PBS)-listed antidepressant between July 2013 and June 2019 was conducted using Australian Commonwealth Department of Human Services PBS 10% sample data.

Between July 2013 and June 2019, 239 944 patients in Australia commenced antidepressant treatment. Of these, 22% (52 694 patients) received a second treatment (a new class of treatment after a period of discontinuation or additional antipsychotic therapy) and 6% (15 741 patients) received a third treatment. Patients were initially prescribed primarily selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs; 52% of prescriptions) or tricyclic antidepressants (TCAs; 25%), even though TCAs are not recommended for first-line treatment. Fewer than one-quarter of patients were prescribed serotonin–noradrenaline reuptake inhibitors (13%) or other agents (10%). General practitioners (GPs) were more likely to initiate TCAs than psychiatrists (22% v. 7%).

Once initiated, the overall median time patients remained on treatment was 4.5 months; this was highest with SSRIs (5.8 months) and lowest with TCAs (0.9 months).

First-line prescribing broadly follows guidelines. GP and psychiatrist prescribing patterns differ, perhaps reflecting different patient groups and the need to tailor treatment to individuals. Future guidelines should aim to capture the different presentations and complexity of depression.

Chronic insomnia is a common mental disorder that severely impacts the quality of life of those affected, increases the risk of comorbid mental disorder and physical illness, and makes treatment of other mental disorders less effective. It is particularly common in patients under secondary care mental health services. Once chronic, insomnia rarely resolves spontaneously. Cognitive behavioural therapy for insomnia (CBT-I) is a highly effective treatment that is recommended by the UK's National Institute of Health and Care Excellence as the first-line treatment. Despite this, CBT-I is not universally available or accessible throughout the UK. Therefore, LW obtrained training at a sleep clinic and then initiated, ran and evaluated a new CBT-I service for existing community patients within her NHS trust.

Patients received individual holistic assessments with a psychiatry trainee, a 5-session weekly virtual group intervention run by LW, and an individual 3-month follow-up. LW also trained other psychiatry trainees to run future groups, initially under supervision. Clinical rating scales were employed at initial assessment, following the final workshop and at follow-up.

Seven patients completed all sessions, with five completing a 3-month follow-up review. All had suffered with chronic insomnia for over 5 years. All had moderate-to-severe insomnia on the Insomnia Severity Index (ISI) at assessment (mean 21.3), which had improved by the end of treatment (mean 14.3). All patients seen at follow-up either no longer had insomnia or had sub-threshold insomnia on the ISI (mean 7.2). From assessment to post-treatment to follow-up, mean scores on the Dysfunctional Beliefs and Attitudes About Sleep Scale reduced from 6.6 to 3.7 to 2.5, and mean scores on the Clinical Outcomes in Routine Evaluation–Outcome Measure reduced from 2.18 to 2.01 to 1.27. Mean scores on the Work and Social Adjustment Scale reduced from 23.6 (severe impairment) at assessment to 7.0 (low impairment) at follow-up. Two patients stopped taking sleeping tablets during the treatment, and remained off them at follow-up.

Group CBT-I can be a highly effective treatment for insomnia for patients under CMHT services. In this service run by a psychiatry trainee without formal sleep medicine or CBT qualifications, the efficacy of the intervention on insomnia symptoms, as well as on anxiety and depressive symptoms, was similar to the efficacies found in clinical trials and in specialist sleep clinics. CBT-I can be easily learnt by psychiatry trainees and likely other professionals with psychological expertise, which could increase the availability and accessibility of this effective treatment.

Despite an elevated risk of psychopathology stemming from COVID-19-related stress, many essential workers stigmatise and avoid psychiatric care. This randomised controlled trial was designed to compare five versions of a social-contact-based brief video intervention for essential workers, differing by protagonist gender and race/ethnicity.

We examined intervention efficacy on treatment-related stigma (‘stigma’) and openness to seeking treatment (‘openness’), especially among workers who had not received prior mental healthcare. We assessed effectiveness and whether viewer/protagonist demographic concordance heightened effectiveness.

Essential workers (N = 2734) randomly viewed a control video or brief video of an actor portraying an essential worker describing hardships, COVID-related anxiety and depression, and psychotherapy benefits. Five video versions (Black/Latinx/White and male/female) followed an identical 3 min script. Half the intervention group participants rewatched their video 14 days later. Stigma and openness were assessed at baseline, post-intervention, and at 14- and 30-day follow-ups. Trial registration: NCT04964570.

All video intervention groups reported immediately decreased stigma (P < 0.0001; Cohen's d = 0.10) and increased openness (P < 0.0001; d = 0.23). The initial increase in openness was largely maintained in the repeated-video group at day 14 (P < 0.0001; d = 0.18), particularly among viewers without history of psychiatric treatment (P < 0.0001; d = 0.32). Increases were not sustained at follow-up. Female participants viewing a female protagonist and Black participants viewing a Black protagonist demonstrated greater openness than other demographic pairings.

Brief video-based interventions improved immediate stigma and openness. Greater effects among female and Black individuals viewing demographically matched protagonists emphasise the value of tailored interventions, especially for socially oppressed groups. This easily disseminated intervention may proactively increase care-seeking, encouraging treatment among workers in need. Future studies should examine intervention mechanisms and whether linking referrals to psychiatric services generates treatment-seeking.

Although patient and carer involvement in research is well-developed in many countries, this area has been largely overlooked in South-East European countries.

To explore experiences of patients participating in newly set up lived experience advisory panels (LEAPs) within a European Commission funded, large-scale, multi-country mental health research project that focused on improving treatment of individuals with psychosis.

Twenty-one mental health patients were individually interviewed across five countries: Bosnia and Herzegovina, Kosovo, Montenegro, North Macedonia and Serbia. Topic guides covered the experience of participating in LEAPs and their sustainability. Data were analysed by framework analysis.

Seven themes were identified about participating in LEAPs: predominantly positive evaluation, high levels of participant motivation, therapeutic benefits for participants, few challenges, various future perspectives, positive appraisal of the research project and mixed reflections on mental healthcare. Overall, patients’ experiences were positive and enabled them to feel empowered. Patients expressed interest in remaining involved in advisory panels. Additionally, they felt that they could potentially contribute to the work of non-government organisations.

This study is among the few studies exploring patient participation in research projects, and the first such study conducted in South-East European countries. Patients are highly motivated for this engagement, which has the potential to empower them to take on new social roles. Significant efforts at the national level are needed in each country, to make patient involvement in research standard practice.

There is evidence that the COVID-19 pandemic has negatively affected mental health, but most studies have been conducted in the general population.

To identify factors associated with mental health during the COVID-19 pandemic in individuals with pre-existing mental illness.

Participants (N = 2869, 78% women, ages 18–94 years) from a UK cohort (the National Centre for Mental Health) with a history of mental illness completed a cross-sectional online survey in June to August 2020. Mental health assessments were the GAD-7 (anxiety), PHQ-9 (depression) and WHO-5 (well-being) questionnaires, and a self-report question on whether their mental health had changed during the pandemic. Regressions examined associations between mental health outcomes and hypothesised risk factors. Secondary analyses examined associations between specific mental health diagnoses and mental health.

A total of 60% of participants reported that mental health had worsened during the pandemic. Younger age, difficulty accessing mental health services, low income, income affected by COVID-19, worry about COVID-19, reduced sleep and increased alcohol/drug use were associated with increased depression and anxiety symptoms and reduced well-being. Feeling socially supported by friends/family/services was associated with better mental health and well-being. Participants with a history of anxiety, depression, post-traumatic stress disorder or eating disorder were more likely to report that mental health had worsened during the pandemic than individuals without a history of these diagnoses.

We identified factors associated with worse mental health during the COVID-19 pandemic in individuals with pre-existing mental illness, in addition to specific groups potentially at elevated risk of poor mental health during the pandemic.

Springbank Ward is a specialist unit for patients with a diagnosis of emotionally unstable personality disorder (EUPD). Psychiatric wards often use restrictive practices to try and minimise suicide risk. Using risk assessment checklists to decide whether to grant leave is one example. Research shows that it is not possible to predict suicide at an individual level, regardless of the assessment method used, so we questioned the utility of such an approach. A previous evaluation of our leave protocol showed that patients and staff would favour a less restrictive and more personalised approach. We introduced a new protocol that eliminated use of checklists, replacing them with an optional 1:1 conversation with staff before leaving the ward. Our aim was to gauge patient and staff satisfaction with the new protocol and investigate their views on the change.

Data were obtained through structured interviews with staff who assessed risk (nurses and psychiatrists) and patients. 9 patients and 8 members of staff were interviewed between 9–19 March 2021. Interviewees were presented with diagrams of both the new protocol and old risk assessment checklist and asked a series of questions, including: rating their satisfaction; any potential improvements; and whether they would prefer the previous or current protocol. Thematic analysis of interview answers was used to explore patient and staff perspectives. Two authors independently analysed the interview transcripts, before discussing any discrepancies to reach a unified set of themes, subthemes and codes.

Both patients and staff gave the new protocol an average satisfaction rating of 4.1/5. Thematic analysis generated five themes: “taking ownership”, “autonomy Vs restriction”, “staff-patient interaction”, “staff expertise” and “protocol efficiency”. Most interviewees agreed that the new protocol supported patients in taking responsibility for their safety, helping to prepare for life in the community. The protocol was considered minimally restrictive and more efficient than the previous system. The importance of communication and trust between patients and staff, as well as the use of staff intuition in holistically assessing risk, was emphasised. Potential disadvantages included the perceived riskiness of reducing restrictions and difficulty seeking support early in the admission.

In general, the new protocol is rated highly by patients and staff and is considered to be minimally restrictive and more holistic, in line with the aims established by our previous evaluation. Our findings have implications regarding risk management for inpatients with EUPD.

Post-traumatic growth (PTG) refers to beneficial psychological change following trauma.

This study explores the sociodemographic, health and deployment-related factors associated with PTG in serving/ex-serving UK armed forces personnel deployed to military operations in Iraq or Afghanistan.

Multinomial logistic regression analyses were applied to retrospective questionnaire data collected 2014–2016, stratified by gender. PTG scores were split into tertiles of no/very low PTG, low PTG and moderate/large PTG.

A total of 1447/4610 male personnel (30.8%) and 198/570 female personnel (34.8%) reported moderate/large PTG. Male personnel were more likely to report moderate/large PTG compared with no/very low PTG if they reported a greater belief of being in serious danger (relative risk ratio (RRR) 2.47, 95% CI 1.68–3.64), were a reservist (RRR 2.37, 95% CI 1.80–3.11), reported good/excellent general health (fair/poor general health: RRR 0.33, 95% CI 0.24–0.46), a greater number of combat experiences, less alcohol use, better mental health, were of lower rank or were younger. Female personnel were more likely to report moderate/large PTG if they were single (in a relationship: RRR 0.40, 95% CI 0.22–0.74), had left military service (RRR 2.34, 95% CI 1.31–4.17), reported better mental health (common mental disorder: RRR 0.37, 95% CI 0.17–0.84), were a reservist, reported a greater number of combat experiences or were younger. Post-traumatic stress disorder had a curvilinear relationship with PTG.

A moderate/large degree of PTG among the UK armed forces is associated with mostly positive health experiences, except for post-traumatic stress disorder.

According to more recent approaches on problematic internet use (PIU), using the internet can be seen as a way of compensating for psychosocial malaise. Taking semiotic cultural psychology theory as its theoretical framework, this study examines the role of affect-laden assumptions concerning the world, known as latent dimensions of sense (LDSs), in promoting (or not) adaptive responses, including internet use as a maladaptive strategy against problems and difficulties.

To test a theoretical model in which PIU is predicted by LDSs through the mediation of high levels of psychosocial malaise.

We measured PIU (using the Generalized Problematic Internet Use Scale 2), LDSs (View of Context questionnaire), negative affect (Positive and Negative Affect Schedule), social anxiety (Interaction Anxiousness Scale) and loneliness (Italian Loneliness Scale) in 764 Italian adolescents (mean age 15.05 years, s.d. = 1.152 years). LDSs were detected using a multiple correspondence analysis; after confirmatory composite analysis, partial least squares structural equation modelling with higher-order components was performed to test the mediation model.

The results show a relationship between LDSs corresponding to an extreme negative evaluation of the sociocultural context, experienced as absolutely unreliable, and PIU through the mediation of psychosocial malaise (95% CI 0.101– 0.171; P = 0.000).

Overall, the findings suggest that PIU might be a way of compensating for unpleasant states in a context perceived in an extremely negative and homogenising way, i.e. as totally lacking resources and trustworthy people.

The aim of the audit is to ascertain how well hyperprolactinemia is being monitored and managed across all acute adult inpatient wards in a mental health NHS Trust, for patients on regular antipsychotic mediation. The objectives of the audit are to: 1) Assess whether prolactin is being monitored according to local guidelines for patients on regular antipsychotic medication, 2) Determine whether hyperprolactinemia is being identified and managed according to appropriate guidelines, 3) Assess the standard of documentation around the decisions made.

Data were collected retrospectively from the electronic notes and records for 78 patients, who were discharged from 8 acute wards in February 2021. For checking prolactin test results, the relevant reporting systems were accessed. Two data collection forms were used, which separated patients between those already taking antipsychotics prior to their admission and those who were newly initiated on an antipsychotic.

Patients who were prescribed at least one regular antipsychotic were included. Patients with pre-existing medical conditions that cause hyperprolactinaemia, ongoing pregnancy or breastfeeding were excluded. The monitoring for and management of hyperprolactinaemia was assessed against NICE and local guidance.

From the reviewed data, 41 patients were prescribed at least one regular antipsychotic drug during their admission. 32 patients were already established on an antipsychotic prior to their admission and 9 individuals were started on their first antipsychotic. Hyperprolactinaemia was identified in 9 patients. 19 patients had no prolactin assay performed during their whole admission.

44.4% of antipsychotic naïve patients had a baseline prolactin level taken prior to starting an antipsychotic. 9.1% of patients with hyperprolactinaemia had their symptoms assessed by a clinician. 27.3% of patients with hyperprolactinaemia had actions discussed and undertaken to address this.

This audit identified that patients are at risk of suffering from hyperprolactinaemia and are being insufficiently monitored. The symptoms of hyperprolactinaemia are not adequately screened or assessed for. This may increase the side effect burden and decrease medication adherence among patients. There is a need to increase the awareness among clinicians about the importance of regular prolactin monitoring to improve patient outcomes.

The COVID-19 pandemic has led to >6 million deaths. Anti-mask movements may decrease the effects of preventive measures. Psychological factors that may be related to anti-mask behaviour are not well researched.

This study aims to determine the psychological correlates of anti-mask attitudes and behaviour in an online general population sample, focusing on the possible role of claustrophobia.

Data on attitudes and behaviour toward mask-wearing were collected from an online sample of 3709 people. Predictors of both anti-mask attitudes and behaviour were assessed with linear and logistic regression analyses.

Few people (3.3%) were overtly opposed to mask-wearing; mask opposition was more common in men than women. Predictors of negative attitude toward mask-wearing and low adherence to mask-related measures were similar and included male gender, lower education, lower income, being employed, having had COVID-19 and lower COVID-19-related anxiety. Psychopathology measures did not show a prediction, whereas claustrophobia had a significant prediction that was over and above those of other predictors. Avoidance behaviour had similar predictors, except for higher COVID-19-related anxiety.

Although low adherence to mask-wearing during the pandemic was not related to having a mental disorder, it may partly be caused by psychological factors. Those who had a negative attitude also reported lower adherence behaviour, and were characterised by being male, having lower education, being employed and having lower COVID-19-related anxiety; claustrophobia was a strong predictor of attitude. Understanding psychological factors responsible for low adherence may help to decrease morbidity and mortality in future pandemics.

Fear and uncertainty have worsened mental health outcomes during the COVID-19 pandemic. COVID-19 testing is essential yet underutilised, and many people may experience difficulties accessing testing if the US federal government fails to sustain the testing capacity. To date, limited evidence exists about the role of COVID-19 testing in mental health. We examined the associations of COVID-19 testing uptake with certain mental disorders, through a nationally representative cohort of adults in US post-secondary education (N = 65 360). Adults with test-confirmed COVID-19 were at significantly lower risk than those with unconfirmed COVID-19 for severe depression, severe anxiety, eating disorders, and suicidal ideation. Findings suggest another potential benefit of public health efforts to encourage COVID-19 testing, namely promoting mental health.

Sleep difficulties are often reported in practice, and are part of the diagnostic criteria for depression and bipolar disorder.

To inform the understanding of the relationship between sleep and both depression and bipolar disorder.

We conducted a narrative literature review of affective disorders and sleep difficulties in children and young people.

Specific sleep disorders, such as parasomnias, narcolepsy and sleep-related movement disorders, are associated with depression, whereas insomnia, obstructive sleep apnoea and circadian rhythm disorders are associated with both depression and bipolar disorder in children and young people. Conversely, children and young people with depression can present with a number of sleep difficulties, and these are associated with higher depression severity and greater fatigue, suicidal ideation, physical complaints, pain and decreased concentration. Sleep disturbances among adolescents with bipolar disorder can affect the severity of depressive and manic symptoms, are a poor prognostic indicator and have been associated with social and academic impairment. Antidepressants and antipsychotics can directly affect sleep architecture, which clinicians need to be aware of. Non-pharmacological interventions for sleep problems could prevent and/or minimise the risk of relapse in affective disorders.

Sleep difficulties can occur before, during and after an episode of depression or bipolar disorder, and have a higher prevalence in affective disorders compared with the general population. A multi-modal approach would include the treatment of both the affective and specific sleep disorder. Further research is needed in this field to understand the impact of combined interventions on clinical outcomes.