This research promotes our understanding of organic farmers' decisionmaking through individual farmers' experiences. A twofold survey was conducted to investigate characteristics of certified organic farmers in Colorado. Data from a mail survey (26 responses to 49 surveys sent) reveal patterns of farm operations and attitudes among this group of farmers. These questionnaires focused on land use, land tenure, operational change, and personal characteristics. In-depth interviews of five case study farmers provide additional insight into farmers' agricultural decisionmaking. These interviews were conversations that the farmers guided toward topics of relevance to them. Taken together, the mail and interview surveys provided information about on-farm operational factors and personal characteristics. Quantitative analysis and qualitative data reduction techniques were used to identify factors in organic farmer decisionmaking. The following eight factors help us understand organic agriculture in this region: diversity, challenge, change, businesslike approach, no formal agricultural education, love of the land, anti-”radical environmentalist,” and obstacles.

A key element of sustainable land management is maintenance of soil quality. We designed this study to compare the impact of land use and landform on soil quality attributes that vary at the plot level, or fine scale, using a framework that can be applied in many settings. The research site for this case study was a small catchment in the hillsides of central Honduras where farmers manage a variety of land uses. Fourteen biological, physical, and chemical attributes that affect the ability of a soil to perform key functions related to supporting plant growth were measured and scored. Samples from 20 sites represented different combinations of landform and land use. Quantitative analysis revealed that land use had a greater influence on soil quality than did landform. Soil organic carbon, texture, A horizon thickness, pH, structure, and bulk density accounted for the greatest differences among landform and land use units. Using weighted and additive combinations of the scored attributes to approximate soil quality functions, irrigated agriculture was judged to be the least sustainable land use, and coffee groves and forest patches were the most sustainable. The final soil quality values were sensitive to the weights and attributes chosen for a given function, and additional testing and evaluation were recommended.

The focus of this paper is the challenge to technology development in the international pesticide industry. We address these challenges within the context of debates on how to achieve an environmentally- and economically-sustainable world food production system. Forces acting within and upon both pesticide manufacturers and the agrifood system are moving toward globalization and standardization. Main issues on sustainability in agriculture are protecting and improving agricultural resources (e.g., preserving and restoring soil and water quality). This places greater emphasis on diversity, regional self reliance, reduced chemical dependence and greater community involvement. A small but rapidly growing movement in local food systems is evolving in parallel with globalized agribusiness. It offers new opportunities for private sector development of technologies and services. These opportunities could be interesting for companies that are struggling to retain profitability in a stagnant and commodityoriented pesticide market. Our question is whether the pesticide industry is structurally capable of developing innovations in products and services for these new local/regional markets to ensure a more diversified and sustainable agriculture. Our conclusion is probably not, but if the industry were capable of doing so it would first need to acquire a thorough understanding of how organic farming systems function.

Research aimed at advancing conservation farming practices is typically performed using traditional scientific approaches, which have been highly successful in increasing agricultural output and efficiency. With the current emphasis on environmental and economic sustainability of agriculture, there is a need for a more integrated approach to applied agricultural research. Participatory research helps to bring scientific methods and the integrated production needs of farmers together to develop practical, effective, and carefully tested farming methods. The strength of participatory research is in the synergism of scientists and farmers working together to design, implement, and evaluate research. The development of new technologies for farming systems large or small, conventional or organic, can be greatly enhanced through more extensive use of participatory research.

An alternative, low-input production system for fresh market tomato was developed using strip tillage practices in conjunction with established bahiagrass pasture. The alternative system was designed to reduce the impact of soilborne pests, minimize agricultural inputs, improve soil conservation and optimize yields. Field experiments indicate that competition from bahiagrassfor nutrients within the tilled strips significantly impacted yield. Selective colonization of tomato roots by arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi isolated from field plots was observed. Damage from root-knot nematodes was minimized by planting tomato into established bahiagrass pastures. The alternative system was validated on a commercial tomato production farm in a side by side comparison with a conventional production system consisting of raised beds, fumigated with methyl bromide and covered by black polyethylene plastic. Yields were 6.5 t/ha greater under the conventional system. However, the net return was $568/ha greater in the alternative system. The results indicate that the alternative system has the potential to replace or supplement the conventional production system.

For four years (1991–1994), gestating gilts rotationally grazing alfalfa were compared to gilts in a dry lot fed 1,800 g/d of a corn-soy diet (control). The dietary supplementation treatments for the grazing gilts were 1,260 g, 720 g, and 180 g of ground corn (70, 40, and 10% of the gilts' energy needs) plus 45 g of monosodium phosphate and 9 g of salt (sodium chloride) per day. All gilts were fed individually. In 1991 and 1992, the gilts were fed daily. In 1993 and 1994, the gilts were fed their weekly feed ration in three equal feedings on Monday, Wednesday, and Friday. Alfalfa paddocks were grazed for one week with a stocking rate of 62 gilts/ha/wk. All gilts had rings in their noses to minimize rooting. For the 42-d mid-gestation trial, the weight gain of the control gilts did not differ from the gain of the grazing gilts daily fed 720 g corn (40%) (P<.05). The interval feeding reduced gains compared to the daily feeding. Gilts daily fed 1,260 g corn/d (70%) gained more than the other grazing treatments (P<.05). The gilts daily fed 180 g corn/d (10%) gained less than all other treatments (P<.05) and had the greatest backfat loss (P<.05) for the 42-d trial. No major trends were noted in number of pigs born per litter or pig birth weight. After one week of grazing, alfalfa height decreased 14.7 cm and DM content of the remaining alfalfa increased 9%. Each grazing season, the alfalfa stand decreased 3.8 plants/m2. Daily alfalfa intakes per gilt were calculated at 11.5 kg (3.2 kg DM) for 1991 and 1992, and increased to 16.3 kg (4.2 kg DM) for 1993 and 1994. These are composite intakes because all grazing gilts were commingled. Mid-gestation gilts rotationally grazing alfalfa need 720 g of corn per day plus phosphorus and salt to match weight gains of gestating gilts in a drylot fed 1,800 g/d of a corn-soy diet. Daily feeding, rather than interval feeding, resulted in greater weight gains and lower alfalfa intakes. The practice of grazing gestating sows has the advantages of no manure to haul, reduced purchased feed inputs, and inclusion of a soil-building crop like alfalfa in the crop rotation.

Understanding farmers' knowledge of soil quality and health is essential to ensure transfer of appropriate technology for on-farm assessments. The objective of this study was to evaluate farmers' knowledge of soil quality by comparing their perceptions of soil conditions for “good” and “problem” soils on their farms with values of soil quality indicators as determined by established assessment protocol. Twenty-four conventional and organic farmers throughout eastern Nebraska were paired within regions of similar climate, topography, and soil type and their perceptions of soil quality indicators were queried using a written questionnaire. Questionnaire data were compared directly to values of soil quality indicators and perception accuracy indices were calculated. Overall, perception accuracy of soil quality indicators did not differ between conventional and organic farmers. Farmers' perceptions of soil quality indicators tended to be more accurate for “good” soils as compared to “problem” soils. Indicators that were incorrectly estimated at a frequency greater than 33% included available nitrogen and phosphorus, soil color, degree of compaction, and infiltration rate. Despite this, farmers' perceptions were correct or nearly-correct over 75% of the time for the majority of indicators evaluated in the study. Evaluation of social and managerial factors indicated that perception accuracy of soil quality indicators declined as the time of on-farm tenure increased. Results from this study indicate that agriculturists should seek out farmers' knowledge of soil characteristics as a first iteration to pointscale evaluation of soil quality.

Intercropping is an agricultural system widely practiced in the tropics and becoming more widespread in temperate regions. The vast majority of varieties currently grown in intercrop have been developed in and for monoculture, although some breeding programs specifically focused on intercrop systems have been initiated. It is not clear if selection in monoculture is adequate to identify varieties adapted to intercrop, nor is it clear if varieties selected for intercrop performance with one companion will be adapted to another crop combination. The aims of this study were to determine the extent to which selection of corn in monoculture would identify types adapted to growth in corn—bean or corn—clover intercrop, and to determine how selection in one of the intercrops (corn—bean or corn—clover) would compare with selection in the other. The corn used consisted of two groups that had been selected in monoculture, and two that had been selected in corn—bean intercrop. All groups were evaluated in monoculture, corn-bean intercrop, and corn—clover intercrop. Analysis of variance showed that the ranking of the four selection groups was not significantly different when the two intercrops were compared, but was significantly different (P < 0.05 for comparison of clover intercrop and monoculture, and P = 0.07 for comparison of bean intercrop and monoculture) when either of the two intercrops was compared with monoculture. Correlation analysis of corn traits and corn yield in the three cropping systems revealed more similarities between the intercrops than between either intercrop and monoculture. Plant height and leaf area index were more strongly negatively correlated with days to flower in both intercrops than in monoculture. Correlation analysis also revealed some differences between the intercrops, particularly with bean and clover yields. Clover yields were not adversely affected by early growth and maturity of corn, but bean yields were. We conclude that selection of corn in monoculture is not ideal when lines adapted to cornclover intercrop or corn—bean intercrop are desired. Furthermore, selection in either intercrop will identify corn types adapted to the other, as early vigor and maturity allow best corn performance in both crop combinations. Thus, individualized breeding programs may not be required to adapt a crop to growth in association with relatively different companions.

Strip intercropping seeks to capture the biological efficiency of intercropping in traditional agricultural systems and is compatible with agricultural equipment used in the U.S. This efficiency stems from complementary use of resources by constituent crops and is a function of crop selection, strip width and orientation, weed control, and other factors. Strip intercropping requires a high level of management; further, some reports suggest the gains and losses more-or-less balance in actual production situations. These questions are best addressed by the performance of strip intercropping as implemented by farmers in production situations.

Practical Farmers of Iowa (PFI) members have worked with Iowa State University agronomists to evaluate strip intercropping. For three years six farmers compared strip intercropping to field blocks of individual crops. The strip intercrop systems employed three crops: corn, soybeans, and small grains with a forage legume underseeding. The comparison systems, crops grown in sole-crop blocks, consisted of the same three crops on four farms (planting pattern comparison) or, on two farms, just corn and soybeans in rotation (systems comparison). Yields and field operations were recorded and entered in the Iowa State University Crop Enterprise Record System (CER) to derive gross profit, total production cost, and net profit for each crop component and for each cropping system on every farm. Strip intercropping net profit was generally greater than that in field blocks, and intercropping compared favorably with CER results obtained from corn-soybean rotations on other farms around Iowa. Land equivalent ratios (LER) were usually greater than 1.0, indicating satisfactory biological efficiency. Despite occasional problems, in this set of 18 site-years strip intercropping was associated with greater stability of net profit.

The sustainability issues associated with agricultural development are a growing concern worldwide. This study focussed on farmers' attitudes about environmental degradation and long term productivity loss that may result from implementation of modern agricultural technologies. The study was conducted in a selected area of Bangladesh and field level data were collected from the sampled farmers through personal interviewing. Findings revealed that more than two-thirds of the farmers confronted either a medium or high level of environmental problems due to intensive cultivation. Their main concerns were stress on soil fertility, loss of essential aquatic life, and reduction of earthworms and other beneficial organisms in soil. The farmers' recommended solutions were production of high yielding crop varieties with conservation management practices, and the balanced use of chemical fertilizers and organic manures. To apply these techniques, the top expectation of the farmers was to receive subsidies for agricultural inputs, and get easy-term credit from the government or non-government organizations. Interestingly, just half the farmers in the study area possessed a less than favorable attitude towards sustainability issues of agricultural development. In other words, to them these issues were of low or marginal priority. Only 6% of them expressed a highly favorable attitude (high priority) and 44% expressed a moderate attitude. Based on correlations, the individual farmer's age, education, family size, organizational participation, television exposure, communication behavior and environmental problem confrontation were identified as the main determinants of their attitudes about sustainability issues. Hence, these factors should be considered when formulating programs and policies for agriculture development that aim for long-term sustainability.

We compared the crop yields and economic performance of organic, lowinput, and conventional farming systems over an eight-year period based on research from the Sustainable Agriculture Farming Systems (SAFS) Project in California's Sacramento Valley. The SAFS Project consisted of four farming-system treatments that differed in material input use and crop rotation sequence. The treatments included four-year rotations under conventional (conv-4), low-input, and organic management, and a conventionally-managed, two-year rotation (conv-2). The four-year rotations included processing tomato, safflower, corn, and bean and a winter grain and/or legume doublecropped with bean. The conv-2 treatment was a tomato and wheat rotation. In the lowinput and organic systems, inorganic fertilizer and synthetic pesticide inputs were reduced or eliminated largely through crop rotation, legume cover crops, composted manure applications, and mechanical cultivation.

All crops, except safflower, demonstrated significant yield differences across farming systems in at least some years of the experiment. Yields of tomato and corn, the most nitrogen (N)-demanding crops in the rotations, responded most years to the farming-system years treatments, while bean and the winter grain/legume displayed treatment differences less often and instead tended to vary more with yearly growing conditions. Nitrogen availability and/or weed competition appeared to account for lower crop yields in the organic and low-input systems in some years. The economics of all farming systems depended mainly on the costs and profits associated with tomato production. The most profitable system was the conv-2 system due to the greater frequency of tomato in that system. Among the four-year rotations, the organic system was the most profitable. However, this system's dependence on price premiums leads to some concern over its long-term economic viability. Among the low-input cropping systems, corn demonstrated clear agronomic and economic advantages over conventional production methods. Based upon these findings, we suggest that future research on organic and low-input farming systems focus on developing cost-effective fertility and weed management options based upon improved understanding of N dynamics and weed ecology.

There is a growing interest in the use of soil microbial inoculants as an alternative biological approach to a) improve soil quality, b) enhance the growth, yield and quality of crops, and c) reduce the inputs of chemical fertilizers and pesticides in agriculture worldwide. One such product that has received considerable attention, is Effective Microorganisms or EM; it consists of mixed cultures of beneficial microorganisms. A long-term field experiment was conducted at Faisalabad, Pakistan to determine the agronomic and economic merits of EM in a rice-wheat cropping system. Treatments were applied in a randomized complete block design that included: control (untreated); recommended chemical fertilizer (NPK); green manure (GM); farmyard manure (FYM); Effective Microorganisms (EM) alone; NPK + EM; GM + EM; and FYM + EM. Significantly higher grain and straw yields for both crops were obtained with NPK alone, with other treatments in the following order: NPK > GM > FYM > EM. However, when fertilizer and organic amendments were combined with EM, higher grain and straw yields were obtained for each crop following the same order, i.e., NPK+EM > GM+EM > FYM+EM. The GM+EM treatment produced grain and straw yields for each crop that approached those for NPK alone. In all cases, the grain and straw yields from EM alone were higher than the controls. With few exceptions, EM applied in combination with NPK, GM and FYM caused a significant increase in nutrient uptake by the grain and straw of each crop. The uptake of NPK by both crops was higher for EM alone than for the controls. A comparative economic analysis of the treatments showed a significantly higher net return due to EM. The average net profit from rice and wheat production using EM was $44.90 ha−1 and $62.35 ha−1, respectively. The study indicates that EM can enhance maximum economic yields in a rice-wheat rotation and also improve soil productivity when applied with organic amendments.

Land use decisions, following expiration of Conservation Reserve Program (CRP) contracts, can be aided by Geographical Information System (GIS) analysis. We utilized a GIS to overlay maps of CRP tracts including wetlands, a surficial aquifer, lakes, rivers and other landscape features in a small watershed in eastern South Dakota. Attribute data including the percentage of highly erodible land, soil type, vegetation, and land capability class were also integrated with the maps. Lake County, South Dakota was used to test the GIS selection model. Criteria were developed for the selection of tracts suitable for various management goals including: protection of surface and groundwater resources, wildlife enhancement, and row-crop or grassland agriculture. The maximum percentage of tract hectares selected for each goal was 17 for groundwater protection, 22 for surface water protection, 18 for wildlife enhancement, 30 for rowcrop production, and 38 for pasture or rangeland. All CRP tracts were selected at least once. The GIS provides a mechanism for selecting CRP tracts to meet several management goals.

The scale of operation and economic performance of organic and conventional dairy farms were compared in Ontario in 1992. Eight certified organic (ORG) farms, comprising 40% of all organic dairy farms, were contrasted with a sample of 120 conventional farms (1.5% of the provincial total) identified under the auspices of the Ontario Dairy Farm Accounting Project (ODFAP). The ODFAP sample was stratified by geographic region in Ontario, then randomly selected within each region. Neither ORG nor ODFAP farm samples contained any hobby or part-time farmers. Scale of operation was comparable on the two types of dairies, with the ratio of ORG to ODFAP being 122% for tillable landbase (ns) and 107% for herd size (ns). Similarly, milk production was comparable from ORG and ODFAP dairies (5,882 and 5,865 liters/cow, respectively; ns). Data on farmer personal characteristics such as age, education level, and management skills were not collected. It was presumed that managerial capabilities were equal between ORG and ODFAP farm samples.

It was hypothesized that total revenue and total cost of production would be greater on ODFAP farms, while net farm income would be higher on ORG than on ODFAP farms. Although the ratio for ORG to ODFAP performance was 93% for total revenue and 77% for total cost of production, neither of these differences was statistically significant. However, ORG dairies yielded 60% more net farm income than ODFAP dairies ($59,718 vs. $37,557; significant at the 5% level). Within the constraints of the supply management marketing system operating in a northern temperate region, ORG approaches to dairy production were shown to be as productive and at least as profitable as those on ODFAP farms, despite reliance on lesser yielding crops and more holistic (less resource-intensive) production methods.

About 120 km west of Stockholm, beside a beautiful lake in a landscape of farmland interspersed with evergreen forests, lies perhaps the best known and most frequently visited organic farm in Sweden. As managed by Kalle and Inger Källander since 1982, Sörtorp has become an impressive example of how, with careful planning and management, a farm's available resources can be fashioned into a stable, productive system whose diverse components work together as an organic whole. This cardinal principle of organic farming is often voiced in the abstract, but to achieve it in practice is another matter. It requires a sustained willingness and ability to learn, to devise ingenious uses for the farm's land and facilities, and to try different approaches to solve existing problems and adapt to changing conditions. All this is abundantly evident at Sortorp.

This paper examines the effects of irrigation practices and related activities on the environment and human health in the West Bank. Irrigated agriculture in the West Bank covers an area of 9,473 ha and utilizes 93 million cubic meters of irrigation water annually. The current annual use of fertilizers in the irrigated areas is 18,980 tons of chemical fertilizers and 198,900 to 265,200 tons of organic fertilizers. The total annual use of pesticides (excluding methyl bromide) in irrigated agriculture is 153 tons, of which 27 tons are internationally banned products. Methyl bromide is a dominant soil fumigant in the West Bank with a total estimated annual use of 400 tons, 44% of which is used on vegetables planted in plastic houses and high plastic tunnels. The soil solarization method to control soil-borne diseases is used by only 0.5% of the surveyed farmers. This study indicates that some farmers have suffered health problems due to exposure to pesticides, from the lack of protective clothing. Of the surveyed farmers, 19% suffer from poisoning symptoms and 1% are affected by methyl bromide fumigants. The total quantity of plastic sheets was estimated at 4,750 tons, at least 50% of which becomes waste. Eighty-eight percent of the surveyed farmers collect and burn the plastic wastes on the field, which could harm both the environment and human health through toxic fumes. Some water-related diseases occurred in the study area. Seventy-nine people were affected by leishmaniasis and 14 others by dysentery. Despite the heavy use of fertilizers, water quality analysis did not show high concentrations of nitrate.