This work is motivated by the need for low-order aerodynamic models to predict accurately the effect on profile drag of controlling attachment line transition. Head's entrainment method(1), a rapid integral boundary layer technique used for design studies on swept wings, suffers from the governing swept-tapered turbulent integral boundary layer equations being ill-posed in the vicinity of the attachment line. This singularity has been treated using crude extrapolations of the attachment-line similarity solution for over half a century, but this approach is unlikely to deliver accurate predictions of the effect of changes in the attachment line flow on profile drag. An experimental study has been carried out to explore the nature of the turbulent flow in the vicinity of a highly swept swept attachment line and has revealed a quite complex, non-monotonic development of the momentum thickness in this region. It has also revealed lower levels of twist in the boundary layer velocity profiles than anticipated from the highly curved character of the inviscid flow streamlines. These observations have prompted an alternative approach to the modelling of the flow in this region which not only successfully eliminates the lack of robustness in the swept-tapered equations but which also matches the experimental results to within ±5%.

In this paper, we proposed a simple approach to analyse the efficiency and propulsive characteristics of the high-altitude propeller in accordance to the Vortex Lattice Lifting line Method (VLM) theory, which is commonly used in preliminary design and parametric studies of propeller propulsion. The Computational Fluid Dynamics (CFD) method was used to obtain aerofoil aerodynamic data. The optimal pitch angle and propeller blade chord length (along the radial direction) can be calculated using the information from the database. The propeller wake model sees helical slipstreams applied to both lightly and moderately loaded propellers. The proposed method is capable of identifying the optimal efficiency through varying the number of propeller blades, radius and the rotational speed. The relationship between the optimal efficiency and design parameters is then established. This method was verified using CFD calculations.

Commercial jets usually have relatively low-aspect-ratio wings, in spite of the associated benefits of increasing the wing aspect-ratio, such as higher lift-to-drag ratios and ranges. This is partially explained by the fact that the wing becomes more flexible by increasing the aspect-ratio that results in higher deflections which can cause aeroelastic instability problems such as flutter. An aeroelastic computational framework capable of evaluating the effects of geometric non-linearities on the aeroelastic performance of high-aspect-ratio wings has been developed and validated using numerical and experimental data. In this work, the aeroelastic performance of a base wing model with 20 m span and 1 m chord is analysed and the effect of changing the wing chord or the taper-ratio is determined. The non-linear static aeroelastic equilibrium solutions are compared in terms of drag polar, root bending moment and natural frequencies, and the change in the flutter speed boundary is assessed as a function of aspect-ratio using a time-marching approach.

In this paper, fire and evacuation computer simulations are used to reconstruct the 1985 Manchester Airport B737 fire that resulted in the loss of 55 lives. First the actual fire and evacuation are reconstructed. Secondly, the impact of exit opening times and external wind on the fire and evacuation are investigated. Finally, the potential benefit offered by modern materials is evaluated. The results suggest that the number of fatalities could have been reduced by 87% had the forward right exit not malfunctioned and by 36% had the right over-wing exit been opened without delay. Furthermore, given the fuel pool size and location, a critical wind speed of 1.5m/s is necessary to cause the fire plume to lean onto the fuselage eventually resulting in fuselage burn-through. Finally, it is suggested that the use of modern cabin materials could have made a significant difference to the fire development and survivability.

Mission simulation is a critical activity in the development and operation of Unmanned Aerial Vehicles (UAVs). It is important to ascertain the feasibility of a trajectory in a mission. In this work, an algorithm has been developed for feasibility study of a trajectory of a UAV using prescribed path optimal control through an inverse simulation method. This has been done under a Differential Algebraic Equations (DAE)/Inequalities (DAI) framework. The UAV model together with constraints is represented as a high index DAE system. The trajectory that UAV shall take is prescribed as one of the constraint equations. The solution for the DAE system is obtained using a variation of the alpha method that is capable of handling both equality and inequality constraints on system dynamics. The algorithm involves direct numerical integration of a DAI formulation in a time-stepping manner using a Sequential Quadratic Programming (SQP) solver that detects and satisfy active path constraints at each time step (mesh point). In this unique approach, the model and the constraints are always solved together. The method ensures stable solution at each time step, local minimum at each iteration of simulation and provides a regularised basis to the solver. A typical UAV trajectory has been simulated and demonstrated in this paper. This new approach can be used for path planning of UAVs before the actual control law is designed for flight control computer. Compared to other existing computationally intensive techniques, this approach is computationally simple, ensures continuous constraint satisfaction and provides a viable option for model predictive control of UAVs.

One key task in computational aeroelasticity is to calculate frequency response functions of aerodynamic coefficients due to structural excitation or external disturbance. Computational fluid dynamics methods are applied for this task at edge-of-envelope flow conditions. Assuming a dynamically linear response around a non-linear steady state, two computationally efficient approaches in time and frequency domain are discussed. A non-periodic, time-domain function can be used, on the one hand, to excite a broad frequency range simultaneously giving the frequency response function in a single non-linear, time-marching simulation. The frequency-domain approach, on the other hand, solves a large but sparse linear system of equations, resulting from the linearisation about the non-linear steady state for each frequency of interest successively. Results are presented for a NACA 0010 aerofoil and a generic civil aircraft configuration in very challenging transonic flow conditions with strong shock-wave/boundary-layer interaction in the pre-buffet regime. Computational cost savings of up to 1 order of magnitude are observed in the time domain for the all-frequencies-at-once approach compared with single-frequency simulations, while an additional order of magnitude is obtained for the frequency-domain method. The paper demonstrates the readiness of computational aeroelasticity tools at edge-of-envelope flow conditions.

When a gas turbine engine is shut down it will develop a circumferential thermal gradient vertically across the compressor due to hot air rising from the cooling metal components and pooling at the top. As the hot compressor rotor drum and casing cool and contract in the presence of this thermal gradient, they do so non-uniformly and therefore will bend slightly, in a phenomenon known as rotor bow. Starting an engine under bowed conditions can result in damage, representing a risk to both airworthiness and operational capability. This study consolidates some preliminary findings by the authors relating to the drivers for rotor bow, such as engine geometry, aircraft-engine integration and rotor temperature on shutdown. The commercial and military operational considerations associated with rotor bow are also discussed, including limitations which may result from a bowed rotor; the influence of operations including the final flight and descent profiles, taxi procedures and rapid turnaround requirements; as well as some practical solutions which may be implemented to reduce the impact of rotor bow.

The paper presents the aerodynamic characterization of a low-speed unmanned aerial vehicle, with cropped delta planform and rectangular cross section, at and around high angles-of-attack using flight test methods. Since the linear models used for identification from flight data at low and moderate angles of attack become unsuitable for accurate parameter estimation at high angles of attack, a non-linear aerodynamic model has to be considered. Therefore, the Kirchhoff's flow separation model was used to incorporate the non-linearity in the aerodynamic model in terms of flow separation point and stall characteristic parameters. The Maximum Likelihood (ML) and Neural Gauss-Newton (NGN) methods were used to perform the parameter estimation on one set of low angle-of-attack and one set of near-stall flight data. It is evident from the estimates that the NGN method, which does not involve solving equations of motion, performs on a par with the classical ML method. This may be attributed to the reason that NGN method uses a neural network which has been trained by performing point to point mapping of the measured flight data. This feature of NGN method enhances its application over a wider envelope of high angles of attack flight data.

This article presents a structural analysis of the Unmanned Aerial System UAS-S4 ETHECATL. Mass, centre of gravity position and principal mass moment of inertia are numerically determined and further experimentally verified using the ‘pendulum method’. The numerical estimations are computed through Raymer and DATCOM statistical-empirical methods coupled with mechanical calculations. The mass of the UAS-S4 parts are estimated according to their sizes and the UAS-S4 class, by the means of Raymer statistical equations. The UAS-S4 is also decomposed in several simple geometrical figures which centres of gravity are individually computed, weighted and then arithmetically averaged to find the whole UAS-S4 centre of gravity. In the same way, DATCOM equations allows us to estimate the mass moments of inertia of each UAS-S4 parts that are finally sum up according to the Huygens-Steiner theorem for computing the principal moment of inertia of the whole UAS-S4. The mass of de UAS-S4 is experimentally determined with two scales. Its centre of gravity coordinates and its mass moment of inertia are found using the pendulum method. A bifilar torsion-type pendulum methodology is used for the vertical axis(14) and a simple pendulum methodology is used for the longitudinal and transversal axes(12). The test object is installed on a pendulum (simple or bifilar torsion pendulum) which is led to oscillate freely while recording the oscillation's angles and speed, by the means of three sensors (an accelerometer, a gyroscope and a magnetometer) that the calibration is also discussed. Simultaneously, nonlinear dynamic models are developed for the rotational motion of pendulums, including the effects of large-angle oscillations, aerodynamic drag, viscous damping and additional momentum of air. ‘Algorithms of minimization’ are then used to simulate and actualise the dynamic models and finally chose the model that simulated data best fit the experimentally recorded one. Pendulum parameters, such as mass moment of inertia, are lastly extracted from the chosen model. To determine the accuracy of the nonlinear dynamics approach of the pendulum method, the experimental results for an object of uniform density for which the mass moments of inertia are computed numerically from geometrical data are presented along with the experimental results obtained for the UAS-S4 ETHECATL. For the uniform density object, the experimental method gives, with respect to the numerical results, an error of 4.4% for the mass moment of inertia around the Z axis and 9.5% for the moment of inertia around the X and Y axes. In addition, the experimental results for the UAS-S4 inertial values validate the numerical calculation through DATCOM method with a relative error of 6.52% on average.

This paper adds data to help establish fidelity criteria to accompany the simulator motion system diagnostic test specified by the International Civil Aviation Organisation. Twelve airline transport pilots flew three tasks in the NASA Vertical Motion Simulator under four different motion conditions. The experiment used three different hexapod motion configurations, each with a different trade-off between motion filter gain and break frequency, and one large motion configuration that utilised as much of the simulator's motion space as possible. The motion condition significantly affected (1) pilot motion fidelity ratings, and sink rate and lateral deviation at touchdown for the approach and landing task, (2) pilot motion fidelity ratings, roll deviations, maximum pitch rate, and number of stick shaker activations in the stall task, and (3) heading deviation after an engine failure in the take-off task. Significant differences in pilot-vehicle performance were used to define initial objective motion cueing criteria boundaries. These initial fidelity boundaries show promise but need refinement.

For performance improvement and noise reduction, swept and anhedral tips have been incorporated in advanced-geometry rotor blades. While there are aerodynamic benefits to these advanced tip geometries, they come at the cost of complicated structural design and weight penalties. The effect of these tip shapes on loads, vibration and aeroelastic response are also unclear. In this study, a comprehensive helicopter aeroelastic analysis which includes rotor-fuselage coupling shall be described and the analysis results for rotor blades with straight tip, tip sweep and tip anhedral shall be presented and compared. The helicopter modelled is a conventional one with a hingeless single main rotor and single tail rotor. The blade undergoes flap, lag, torsion and axial deformations. Tip sweep, pretwist, precone, predroop, torque offset and root offset are included in the model. Aerodynamic model includes Peters-He dynamic wake theory for inflow and the modified ONERA dynamic stall theory for airloads calculations. The complete 6-dof nonlinear equilibrium equations of the fuselage are solved for analysing any general flight condition. Response to pilot control inputs is determined by integrating the full set of nonlinear equations of motion with respect to time. The effects of tip sweep and tip anhedral on structural dynamics, trim characteristics and vehicle response to pilot inputs are presented. It is shown that for blades with tip sweep and tip anhedral/dihedral, the 1/rev harmonics of the root loads reduce while the 4/rev harmonics of the hub loads increase in magnitude. Tip dihedral is shown to induce a reversal of yaw rate for lateral and longitudinal cyclic input.

In this work, trajectory optimisation has been performed for a wing-body rocket assisted vehicle to compute the bestset of performance parameters including burn-out angle, angle-of-attack, bank-angle and throttle command that would result in optimal down-range and cross-range performance of the re-entry vehicle. An hp-adaptive Pseudospectral method has been used for the optimisation by combining the launch and rocket rocket-assisted re-entry stages. The purpose of the research is to compute optimal burn-out condition, angle-of-attack, bank-angle and optimal thrust segments that would maximise the down-range and cross-range performance of the hypersonic boost glide vehicle, under constrained heat rate environments. The variation of down-range/cross-range performance of rocket rocket-assisted hypersonic boost glide vehicle with bounds on diminishing heat rate has also been computed.

The ever-changing battlefield environment, as well as the emergence of global command and control architectures currently used by armed forces around the globe, requires the use of robust and adaptive technologies integrated into a reliable platform. Unmanned Combat Aerial Vehicles (UCAVs) aim to integrate such advanced technologies while also increasing the tactical capabilities of combat aircraft. This paper provides a summary of the technical and operational design challenges specific to UCAVs, focusing on high-performance, and stealth designs. After a brief historical overview, the main technology demonstrator programmes currently under development are presented. The key technologies affecting UCAV design are identified and discussed. Finally, this paper briefly presents the main issues related to airworthiness, navigation, and ethical concerns behind UAV/UCAV operations.

In this paper, a morphing carbon fibre composite aerofoil concept with an active trailing edge is proposed. This aerofoil features of camber morphing with multiple degrees of freedom. The shape morphing is enabled by an innovative structure driven by an electrical actuation system that uses linear ultrasonic motors (LUSM) with compliant runners, enabling full control of multiple degrees of freedom. The compliant runners also serve as structural components that carry the aerodynamic load and maintain a smooth skin curvature. The morphing structure with compliant truss is shown to exhibit a satisfactory flexibility and loading capacity in both numerical simulations and static loading tests. This design is capable of providing a pitching moment control independent of lift and higher L/D ratios within a wider angle-of-attack range. Such multiple morphing configurations could expand the flight envelope of future unmanned aerial vehicles. A small prototype is built to illustrate the concept, but as no off-the-shelf LUSMs can be integrated into this benchtop model, two servos are employed as actuators, providing two controlled degrees of freedom.

Internet applications have been extended to various aspects of everyday life and offer services of high reliability and security at relatively low cost. This project presents the design of a reliable, safe and secure software system for real-time remote operation and monitoring of an aero gas turbine with utilisation of existing internet technology, whilst the gas turbine is installed in a remote test facility

This project introduces a capability that allows remote and flexible operation of an aero gas turbine throughout the whole operational envelope, as required by the user at low cost, by exploiting the available Internet technology. Remote operation of the gas turbine can be combined with other remote Internet applications to provide very powerful gas-turbine performance-simulation experimental platforms and real-time performance monitoring tools, whilst keeping the implementation cost at low levels.

The gas turbine used in this experiment is an AMT Netherlands Olympus micro gas turbine and a spiral model approach was applied for the software. The whole process was driven by risk mitigation.

The outcome is a fully functional software application that enables remote operation of the micro gas turbine whilst constantly monitors the performance of the engine according to basic gas turbine control theory. The application is very flexible, as it runs with no local installation requirements and includes provisions for expansion and collaboration with other online performance simulation and diagnostic tools.

A new trajectory tracking control approach for an under-actuated stratospheric airship is proposed. There is a two-level structure of the proposed controller. A low-level controller based on non-linear vectorial backstepping method, with the rigid-body dynamics expressed on vector form, stabilises the attitude and velocity of the airship, while a high-level controller performs guidance and trajectory tracking task in the three-dimensional (3D) space. Furthermore, a control allocation module based on the active set algorithm is incorporated into the low-level controller to optimise the practical control inputs under constraints of actuator saturation. The closed-loop trajectory tracking control plant is proved to be globally exponentially stable through the Lyapunov theory. Finally, simulations show that the vectorial backstepping trajectory tracking controller can achieve desired tracking performances even if the airship is affected by parametric uncertainties and exogenous disturbances.

Flow separation followed by aerodynamic stall limits the operation of aircraft. Expanding the flight envelope of aircraft has been a goal of aerodynamicists for decades. This work presents findings from tests in the Oregon State University wind tunnel investigating the effectiveness of a passively actuated suction-surface flap on membrane wings. Experiments were conducted on a rigid plate and membrane wings with and without a pop-up flap. All wings had an aspect ratio of 2, while membrane pre-strain and Reynolds number were varied. An increase in lift at stall was observed for all testing conditions with flap deployment. The observed average increase in maximum lift varied from 5% to 15% for different test conditions. The variation in flap effectiveness is compared to membrane pre-strain, Reynolds number, and wing camber. A quadratic relationship between modelled camber and flap effectiveness is observed, and an optimal level of membrane camber is found to maximise flap effectiveness.

The present work describes an experimental activity carried out to investigate the performance of Gurney flaps on a helicopter rotor model in hovering. The four blades of the articulated rotor model were equipped with Gurney flaps positioned at 95% of the aerofoil chord, spanning 14% of the rotor radius. The global aerodynamic loads and torque were measured for three Gurney flap configurations characterised by different heights. The global measurements showed an apparent benefit produced by Gurney flaps in terms of rotor performance with respect to the clean blade configuration. Particle image velocimetry surveys were also performed on the blade section at 65% of the rotor radius with and without the Gurney flaps. The local velocity data was used to complete the characterisation of the blade aerodynamic performance through the evaluation of the sectional aerodynamic loads using the the control volume approach.

The assimilation of discrete data points with model predictions can be used to achieve a reduction in the uncertainty of the model input parameters, which generate accurate predictions. The problem investigated here involves the prediction of limit-cycle oscillations using a High-Dimensional Harmonic Balance (HDHB) method. The efficiency of the HDHB method is exploited to enable calibration of structural input parameters using a Bayesian inference technique. Markov-chain Monte Carlo is employed to sample the posterior distributions. Parameter estimation is carried out on a pitch/plunge aerofoil and two Goland wing configurations. In all cases, significant refinement was achieved in the distribution of possible structural parameters allowing better predictions of their true deterministic values. Additionally, a comparison of two approaches to extract the true values from the posterior distributions is presented.

Particle Image Velocimetry (PIV) has been used to study the complex flowfield created by simulated battle damage to a two-dimensional wing. Computational Fluid Dynamics (CFD) predictions have also been used for validation of internal cavity flow. Two damage cases were selected for the study; both cases were simulated using a single hole with diameters equal to 20% and 40% of the chord, located at the wing half-chord. Wind-tunnel tests were conducted at a Reynolds number of 500,000 over a range of incidences from 0 to 10° with two-component PIV measurements made on three chordwise and three spanwise planes. The PIV data were analysed and compared to CFD data of the same damage cases. The PIV data have shown lower velocity ratios and lower vorticity in the jet compared to past Jet in Cross-Flow experiments and CFD was used to describe the flow features inside the cavity of the wing. It was seen that the wing cavity has large effects on the external flow features, particularly for the 20% damage case. Finally, the flow field data have been related to force balance data. At higher incidence angles, the larger force coefficient increments in both lift and drag can be attributed to the larger wakes and higher jet strengths.