Genocide is legally defined as the intent to destroy, in whole or in part, a national, ethnic, racial or religious group through targeted killings, forced displacement, sexualized violence and other forms of violence. Although the United Nations formally outlawed this crime in the wake of the Holocaust, genocides date back centuries. Genocides have also continued to occur, with upwards of 40 genocides eradicating millions of individuals since the 1940s.

Given the scope of this violence, this entry addresses the causes of genocide with an emphasis on national, subnational and individual-level risk factors. As many scholars study the crime of genocide, this entry emphasizes criminological findings but also incorporates interdisciplinary work on genocides across rural and urban settings.

National risk factors

Genocides are often, though not always, perpetrated by governments. Accordingly, much research has examined why genocide occurs by analysing the national-level conditions that have been associated with genocide during the twentieth and twenty-first centuries. These include, but are not limited to, political upheaval and threat; state structure and capacity; and ideology and social divisions.

Genocide typically occurs in contexts of political upheaval and threat. For instance, civil wars can lead to genocide. Rural, mountainous regions often foster civil wars because distance from centres of power aids rebellion. When rebellious factions in such regions (or others) initiate a civil war, genocide becomes more likely – either because political leaders attempt to remove insurgent threats or because civil wars can usher in repressive leaders via unconventional regime changes.

Successful coups and revolutions can similarly pave the way for repressive leaders, whilst unsuccessful ones threaten existing leaders, which can provoke harsh reactions. Assassinations, elections, riots and movements against the state also impact upheaval and/ or threat, and countries that previously experienced upheaval, including prior wars and atrocities, are also at higher risk of genocide.

State structure and capacity have also been tied to genocide. Autocratic regimes with few checks and balances often harm their own people, though mixed regimes (that is, those that are not democracies or autocracies) are likewise associated with genocide. Strong state capacity has been linked to several prominent genocides (for example, the Holocaust during World War Two; Rwanda in 1994), as strong governments have the power to exert their will.