Methodologies that analyse the colouration and external appearance of extant species are very useful tools when facing one of the greatest challenges in the palaeoartistic reconstructions of extinct fauna: inferring the colour patterns. Earlier works have applied this methodology, for example, in the reconstruction of the Miocene bovid Tethytragus, proving that the maximum likelihood (ML) analysis to infer ancestral states has promising potential. This study offers a proposal for the reconstruction of the external appearance of Heteroprox moralesi Azanza 1989, an early cervid of the Middle Miocene present in several fossil sites of Central Spain. For the reconstruction of the external appearance, the colour patterns of all the extant species of the family Cervidae were studied with the method of ML analysis, as well as recent works about their phylogeny. The results show the most probable basal colour pattern of the cervids: dark shades on the limbs, dorsal section, and head of the animal, and, in contrast, lighter colours on the neck and perianal region. This basal pattern can be used as a basis for reconstructing colouration and to hypothesise about the external appearance of extinct taxa. Furthermore, the inferred forest habitat of H. moralesi has been taken into consideration in order to adjust the colour pattern, comparing the final results of the analysis performed in this study with that of the pattern observed in extant forest deer as well as with previous works employing this methodology.

Climate variables are commonly used to predict suitability for species occurrence, but local processes, such as landscape changes, may affect habitat suitability. We identified levels of exposure to deforestation of suitable climatic areas for eight bat species in the Brazilian Cerrado and explored how sensitivity to land-use changes could reduce their persistence. We created scenarios of sensitivity to land-use changes using theoretical species persistence thresholds to natural vegetation loss in landscapes (70%, 50% and 30% of loss). We also assessed sensitivity to land-use changes using empirical data. Species are under higher exposure to land-use changes in the southern Cerrado, a region more affected by humans due to its proximity to major urban areas. Changes in land use in the Cerrado mostly affect Myotis nigricans, Artibeus cinereus and Platyrrhinus lineatus. Empirically derived scenarios encountered significant thresholds at 50% of natural vegetation loss in landscapes for Artibeus lituratus and P. lineatus. Deforestation has already affected a half of the Cerrado area, but in terms of possibly vulnerable suitable areas, a larger proportion has been lost, amounting to up to 80% of the suitable area. We propose that information on species-specific sensitivity thresholds to habitat loss and on the exposure of suitable landscapes to land-use changes can be useful to assessing species vulnerability.

This paper presents a quantitative reconstruction of the European late Pleistocene paleoclimate based on 72 rodent assemblages of five sequences from France, Germany and Bulgaria, covering the last interglacial–glacial cycle. They show a pattern of severe changes in temperature, with reduced precipitation during the coldest periods. A tentative correlation between the isotopic and palynological records and the paleotemperature changes is shown. These changes are consistent with variations in atmospheric circulation patterns in response to an expanding–retracting Fennoscandian ice-sheet. They can be attributed to the enhancement–weakening of the Scandinavian-Polar anticyclone and its associated dry winds, the south–north shifting of the North Atlantic Polar Front, and the varying supply of moist air from the Atlantic. Qualitative paleoenvironmental analysis shows broadleaved-deciduous forests in France and Bulgaria during most of the studied period. Taiga and tundra appeared in eastern France during the lower Würm. The German sequence indicates the presence of coniferous forests. These results are broadly consistent with other paleobiological records (mammalian, avian and insect faunas, isotopic record in dental tissue, palynology). The main discrepancies with the paleoclimate inferred from the palynological record are found during the coldest periods and are probably due to the interaction between vegetation, climate, and atmospheric CO2 levels.

The Pliocene and Pleistocene continental sedimentary records of the western sector of the Granada Basin, southern Spain, consist of alternating fluvial and lacustrine/palustrine sediments. Two Quaternary sections from this sector have been sampled: Huétor Tájar and Tojaire. They have yielded remains of rodents, insectivores and lagomorphs. The presence in the Huétor Tájar and Tojaire sections of Mimomys, Apodemus atavus, Castillomys rivas and two different species of Allophaiomys, indicates an Early Pleistocene age. These deposits, which are related to a fluvio-lacustrine system, can be differentiated from an older (Pliocene) braided fluvial system. Their dating has important repercussions on the paleogeographic reconstruction of the basin. The conditions inferred from the ecological preferences of the small mammal associations are wet and cold. These associations suggest a predominance of open herbaceous habitats, followed by forested habitats; semiaquatic habitats are the least represented.

Insectivore remains are not common in the Lower Oligocene of Europe. For this reason, the study of the earliest Oligocene insectivore fauna (MP 21) from Boutersem and Hoogbutsel, all together yielding nine species, representing five families, constitutes an important progress in the knowledge of the Late Eocene and Early Oligocene insectivore evolution. Some of the genera discovered in Belgium are known from upper Eocene sites (Saturninia, Amphidozotherium, Euronyctia, Eotalpa), whereas others are not known before the Oligocene (Butselia, Tetracus, Heterosoricinae ind.). The co-occurrence of primitive species of Nyctitheriidae with modern forms belonging to the Plesiosoricidae, Talpidae and Erinaceidae at the Eocene-Oligocene boundary suggests a transition fauna. Between the Priabonian (Late Eocene) and the Rupelian (Early Oligocene), the endemic European insectivores were in competition with the new immigrants. This faunal turnover is generally accepted as the ‘Grande Coupure’ event (the MP 21 event).

Bats and birds carry out most of the seed dispersal in the Neotropics (Galindo-Gonzáles et al. 2000), and are crucial for the dynamics and regeneration of tropical forests (Whittaker & Jones 1994). However, only a few details are known about the interactions in particular bat–fruit systems. Most frugivorous bats are highly mobile (Bernard & Fenton 2003), and do not harm seeds (Fleming & Sosa 1994), suggesting that they are legitimate and effective seed dispersers (sensu Fleming & Sosa 1994).

This paper presents the first complete estimate of the phylogenetic relationships among all 197 species of extant and recently extinct ruminants combining morphological, ethological and molecular information. The composite tree is derived by applying matrix representation using parsimony analysis to 164 previous partial estimates, and is remarkably well resolved, containing 159 nodes (>80% of the potential nodes in the completely resolved phylogeny). Bremer decay index has been used to indicate the degree of certainty associated with each clade. The ages of over 80% of the clades in the tree have been estimated from information in the literature. The supertree for Ruminantia illustrates which areas of ruminant phylogeny are still only roughly known because of taxa with controversial relationships (e.g. Odocoileini, Antilopinae) or not studied in great detail (e.g. Muntiacus). It supports the monophyly of the ruminant families and Pecora. According to this analysis Antilocapridae and Giraffidae constitute the superfamily Giraffoidea, which is the sister group of a clade clustering Bovoidea and Cervoidea. The position of several taxa whose systematic positions have remained controversial in the past (Saiga, Pelea, Aepycerus, Pantholops, Ammotragus, Pseudois) is unambiguously established. Nevertheless, the position of Neotragus and Oreotragus within the original radiation of the non-bovine bovids remains unresolved in the present analysis. It also shows that six successive rapid cladogenesis events occurred within the infraorder Pecora during the Oligocene to middle Pliocene, which coincided with periods of global climatic change. Finally, the presented supertree will be a useful framework for comparative and evolutionary biologists interested in studies involving the ruminants.

Predictors used to calculate the body mass of extinct carnivorans often scale differently between different taxa, thus yielding body mass estimates that diverge considerably depending on which predictive equation is used. This requires the investigator to choose the ones most suitable, a procedure that is best avoided if possible. The carnivoran elbow joint is here explored with the aim of producing a single general body mass predictor that can be used over a broad range of terrestrial and arboreal carnivorans. The circumference of the distal humerus trochlea is found to be highly correlated with body mass, and trochlea circumference seems to scale similarly throughout the order Carnivora. This scaling is not as theoretically predicted by elastic similarity and is slightly higher than that predicted by geometric similarity, indicating a slight positive allometry for the latter. Some degree of differential scaling between carnivoran families and between animals of large and small size cannot be ruled out, but this result is inconclusive. A predictive model that allows mass estimations for a broad range of carnivorans is presented (a=0.601; b=2.552; r2=0.952, SEE=0.136, P<0001, n=92). Body mass for eight extinct carnivoran species are calculated and these generally conform to earlier mass predictions.

The middle ear structures of nine species of golden moles (family Chrysochloridae) were examined under the light microscope. Auditory structures of several of these species are described here for the first time in detail, the emphasis being on the ossicular apparatus. Confirming previous observations, some golden moles (e.g. Amblysomus species) have ossicles of a morphology typical of mammals, whereas others (Chrysospalax, Chrysochloris, Cryptochloris and Eremitalpa species) have enormously hypertrophied mallei. Golden moles differ in the nature and extent of the interbullar connection, the shape of the tympanic membrane and that of the manubrium. The stapes has an unusual orientation, projecting dorsomedially from the incus. It has been proposed that hypertrophied ossicles in golden moles are adapted towards the detection of seismic vibrations. The functional morphology of the middle ear apparatus is reconsidered in this light, and it is proposed that adaptations towards low-frequency airborne hearing might have predisposed golden moles towards the evolution of seismic sensitivity through inertial bone conduction. The morphology of the middle ear apparatus sheds little light on the disputed ordinal position of the Chrysochloridae.

Some genera of golden moles are known to possess enormously hypertrophied auditory ossicles. These structures have been implicated as potentially mediating a form of inertial bone conduction, used by the golden mole to detect seismic vibrations. A simple model of ossicular inertial bone conduction, based on an existing model of the human middle ear from the literature, was used in an attempt to examine vibrational sensitivity in these animals. Those golden moles with hypertrophied ossicles are predicted to possess a sensitive inertial bone conduction response at frequencies below a few hundred hertz, whereas species lacking these middle ear adaptations are predicted to have a far less sensitive response in this ecologically important frequency range. An alternative mode of inertial bone conduction in golden moles, potentially conferring sensitivity to vertically-polarized seismic vibrations such as Rayleigh waves, is proposed. Certain behaviours of golden moles described in the literature are interpreted as augmenting seismic sensitivity.

Armadillos are a very diverse group ranging from non-fossorial Tolypeutini through to the powerful diggers like the giant armadillo Priodontes maximus to the totally subterranean Chlamyphorini. A previous study demonstrated a close relationship between the relative length of the olecranon of the ulna (index of fossorial ability, IFA) and the fossorial ability of armadillos. This study examines a wide range of limb proportions to explore the biomechanical correlates with fossorial ability. The study demonstrates that the indices of the forelimb (brachial index, shoulder moment index and IFA) do correlate well with digging habits, but also reveals some interesting exceptions, particularly in the most fossorial and most cursorial forms. On the other hand, the hindlimb indices apparently do not correlate with digging habits, but seem to be influenced more by body size. The correlations among the forelimb indices are quite strong and positive but correlations between forelimb and hindlimb indices are negative or very low. It is apparent that there is still much to be learned about structure and function in armadillos.

The high predation pressure in aquatic environments is generally assumed to be the ultimate cause of terrestrial breeding in anurans (Downie 1993, Magnusson & Hero 1991, Poynton 1964, Yorke 1983). It has evolved multiple times and is presently found in most anuran families (Bogart 1981, Duellman 1992). It is often associated with higher humidity and thus lower desiccation risk in tropical forests (Duellman & Trueb 1986). Most clutches that are oviposited terrestrially are either hidden in subterranean refuges or attached more or less exposed to vegetation (Duellman & Trueb 1986, Lamotte & Lescure 1977). Exposed clutches however, face the risk of desiccation, even in rain-forest environments (Rödel pers. obs.) and are still vulnerable to predation. Such disparate groups as various arthropods (Villa 1977, 1980; Villa & Townsend 1983, Vonesh 2000), frogs (Crump 1974), snakes (Roberts 1994, Scott & Starrett 1974, Warkentin 1995) and birds (Brosset 1967), have been reported to feed on these clutches. The foam nests,which occur in at least six tropical anuran families, seem to provide better protection. Their drying surface and their more or less liquid interior offers the tadpoles an aquatic environment that is well protected against desiccation and predation (Duellman & Trueb 1986, Seymour & Loveridge 1994). In addition the bubbles of the foam facilitate oxygen diffusion within the nest and may even provide a capacious oxygen store for eggs and hatched tadpoles (Seymour & Loveridge 1994). Few predators have been reported to feed on foam nests, one of which,paradoxically, is a frog (Drewes & Altig 1996). In the Taï National Park, Ivory Coast, we discovered a quite unexpected group of predators preying on foam nests and frog clutches exposed on leaves: monkeys.

A large data set, comprising certain measurements of middle ear structures in mammals, was compiled both from measurements made by the author and from the literature. Parameters of the middle ear apparatus believed to be important to audition were compared between fossorial and non-fossorial species, in an attempt to identify general trends among fossorial groups. Although their tympanic membranes are not of unusual size, many fossorial mammals possess enlarged stapes footplate areas, resulting in low anatomical area ratios. Low anatomical lever ratios are also common, and the reduction or loss of middle ear muscles seems to be a consistent trend. These characteristics might be associated with poor sensitivity to airborne sound. Other features of the middle ear apparatus are more variable both between and within fossorial families. The middle ear ossicles of fossorial rodents, talpid moles and some golden moles were not found to differ in mass from those of non-fossorial mammals of similar body size. The similar ossicular morphologies of these animals suggest convergent adaptation towards a subterranean environment, but the middle ear structure alone does not seem to explain the restricted hearing range observed in certain of these species. Some genera of golden moles possess extraordinarily hypertrophied auditory ossicles, which, relative to body mass, are the largest of all mammals for which data are available. These ossicles seem to be adaptations towards a form of inertial bone conduction, used for the detection of substrate vibrations. In stark contrast, the marsupial mole Notoryctes has particularly small ossicles. The unusual middle ear structures of this animal may well be degenerate.

Allozyme and morphometric variation was studied in two populations of moles, Talpa europaea and T. romana, in an area of sympatric occurrence (Palazzo, near Assisi, central Italy) located along the known parapatric contact boundary. The electrophoretic analysis revealed 36 moles characterized by a genome of T. europaea, and 29 moles with a genome of T. romana. The extension of the overlap zone was c. 2 km along the north–south direction. Fourteen specimens recognized as T. europaea had an Ada allele typical of T. romana, while two specimens identified as T. romana were characterized by two alleles (at the Adh and Sdh loci) previously found only in T. europaea. The skulls of the specimens with introgressed alleles showed features intermediate between those typical of T. romana and T. europaea. However, the intermediate skull shape of the introgressed specimens did not correspond to an intermediate size between T. romana and T. europaea. The occurrence of individuals with introgressed alleles, and the lack of F1 hybrids or backcrossed individuals suggest that at present free interbreeding between the two species is unlikely, but that hybridization and backcrossing has occurred, probably when the species first came into contact.

Reproductive activities of six giant panda females (Ailuropoda melanoleuca) living in the Qinling Mountains of China (Shaanxi Province) were recorded from 1989 into early 1995. Data on mating and birth dates, litter size, cub sex and den use were collected for three of the pandas. At this site, pregnant females migrated to lower elevations in advance of other pandas to seek dens for birthing. One dam was videotaped in the den with her cub from birth to the end of the denning phase at 94 days of age. This cub was repeatedly handled during the dam's absences to obtain data on development and weight. During the early part of the denning phase, the cub was maintained on the dam's body virtually continuously. Post-partum fasting for up to 3 weeks was noted. Dams invariably moved cubs to new dens three or four times during the birth season. By the time cubs left the den at about 3–4 months, they were fully furred and capable of surviving winter temperatures without further shelter. Reproductive parameters for the wild population fell within the range of values for captive pandas, based on information in the literature and in the giant panda studbook. The combined data on length of gestation, intervals between births, litter size and weight, infant development, and reproductive life span reveal a range of life-history variables that strongly resemble the Ursidae.

Long bones from a taxonomically diverse assemblage of extant terrestrial mammals, spanning more than three orders of magnitude in body mass, have been measured in order to evaluate earlier models proposed for limb allometry as a means of physically coping with increased body size in large species. Linear regression models are unable to explain long bone scaling across a large size range of mammals, as differential scaling is present in large and small species and smaller species tend to approach geometric similarity to a considerably greater extent than larger species. Attempting to explain the morphology of the appendicular skeleton across the large size range of terrestrial Mammalia by means of a standard power function will probably inevitably lead to oversimplification, concealing underlying adaptations for coping with increased size. These include differences in limb posture, decrease in locomotory potential and greater duty factors during fast locomotion in large animals compared to anatomically similar smaller forms, and differential scaling of the appendicular skeleton in small and large mammals.